Working with victims of crime: A manual applying research to clinical practice (Second Edition)
10.0 Victims of Terrorism (continued)
Web-based Resources
There is much on the World Wide Web that you can use to learn more about working with victims of terrorism. Using any search engine will take you to useful resources. The following sites are identified as ways of quickly getting useful information. You are encouraged to do your own search, focusing on issues specific to the needs of your client.
-
The American Psychology Association (APA) has developed facts sheets designed to help build resilience in a variety of populations after terrorist attacks, including adults, children, first responders, mental health workers, military families, older adults, people of colour, primary care providers, and the seriously mentally ill.
http://www.apa.org/psychologists/resilience.html -
The Canadian Psychology Association (CPA) has developed facts sheets around various problems areas, including post-traumatic stress disorder, grief and depression.
http://www.cpa.ca/publications/yourhealthpsychologyworksfactsheets/ -
The International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies (ISTSS) is an international multidisciplinary, professional organization that focuses on severe stress and trauma. The organization explores issues such as understanding the scope and consequences of traumatic exposure, preventing traumatic events and ameliorating their consequences, and advocating for the field of traumatic stress. Their site includes a sub-section on terrorism, including links and pamphlets.
http://www.istss.org -
The Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism (MIPT) has a large database of articles and information around all aspects of terrorism, including links to other sites.
http://www.mipt.org/ -
The Office for Victims of Crime Resource Center (OVCRC) has a searchable archive on various victims’ issues and several manuals and reports that were used in this chapter.
http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/ovc/ -
Victims Assistance Online is an information, research and networking resource focused on victimology for victim assistance workers and professionals working with victims. They have a special page for victims of terrorism.
http://www.vaonline.org/terrorism.html
The Basics
- Terrorists use violent criminal behaviour to meet political ends by putting pressure on decision makers and society (Ganor 2004). By focusing on political leaders and general community members, terrorists spread fear throughout society to increase attention to their political cause (Danieli, Brom and Sills 2004).
- Terrorism strikes at the heart of viewing the world as a safe and predictable place (Davidowitz-Farkas and Hutchison-Hall 2005).
- Victims of terrorism include:
- Direct victims: those killed or who directly witnessed the attack.
- Direct professional/volunteer victims: includes people who are at the scene of the terrorist attack as part of their job or as volunteers.
- Indirect victims: direct victims family members, friends, co-workers, etc. Direct victims often use this group for support.
- Community victims: people in the community who are affected by the attack.
- Re-victimized victims: people who have been victims of previous terrorist attacks, but are now re-traumatized by a new attack or report of a thwarted attack.
- There appears to be no research directly comparing victims of terrorism with other crime victims.
- Trauma reactions do not follow a predictable path; each person is different (Silver et al. 2004).
- Many victims of terrorism may feel initial distress (Lahad 2005; Schlenger 2004) but not go on to develop any major psychological problems (Friedman 2005; Galili-Weisstub and Benarroch 2004).
- Problems workers should watch for in their clients include Post-Traumatic Stress Reaction and Acute Stress Disorder (Office for Victims of Crime 2005); complicated grief (Pivar and Prigerson 2004); and anger (Lebel and Ronel 2005), depression (Miller and Heldring 2004), survivor guilt.
- Victims who have been held hostage may experience feelings of helplessness, hopelessness, may feel dazed, fear death/torture, be in shock, and have distorted thoughts and feelings (Hillman 1983) and can also develop Stockholm Syndrome. Stockholm Syndrome (also know as Hostage Identification Syndrome) is a condition wherein a hostage bonds with the hostage taker during the holding phase of the crime (Wilson 2003).
- Child victims of terrorism deal with many of the same issues as adults do, but much more depends on caregiver reaction and developmental level. Caregivers need to model how to emotionally handle victimization; they also help children better manage reactions.
- Workers need to assess whether victims need crisis intervention, short-term emotional support, information, support in their meaning-making efforts, or grief counselling.
- Meaning-making includes both allowing the victim to create a manageable story while also express feelings in an open manner.
- Workers should also attend to trauma histories, as a previous history of trauma can worsen reactions to the most recent event.
- Workers should help victims identify strengths that help them cope with their reaction, and watch for post-traumatic growth, where the person improves because of successfully overcoming the challenge of the attack.
- Workers may need to provide or offer guidance and assistance to the victim’s support network.
- Workers should remember that self-care habits are even more important because of the initial crisis atmosphere and later service needs (Waizer et al. 2004).
- Workers need to pay attention to their personal views about the terrorist attack and the agenda and reaction of other governments, as these views may affect their work.
- Workers need to watch for vicarious traumatization, for intrusive thoughts and images, and signs they are spending much time thinking about the victim’s ordeal.
- Workers need to adjust to the “new normal” (Danieli et al. 2004).
References
-
Adams, M. L., J. D. Ford and W. F. Dailey. 2004. Predictors of help seeking among Connecticut adults after September 11, 2001. American Journal of Public Health 94(9): 1596-1602.
-
Addington, L. A. 2003. Students' fear after Columbine: Findings from a randomized experiment. Journal of Quantitative Criminology 19(4): 367-387.
-
Adessky, R. S. and S. A. Freedman. 2005. Treating survivors of adversity while adversity continues. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 10(1-2): 443-454.
-
Ahern, J., S. Galea, H. Resnick and D. Vlahov. 2004. Television watching and mental health in the general population of New York City after September 11. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 9(1-2): 109-124.
-
Amsel, L. V., Y. Neria, R. D. Marshall and E. Jung Suh. 2005. Training therapists to treat the psychological consequences of terrorism: Disseminating psychotherapy research and researching psychotherapy dissemination. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 10(1-2): 633-647.
-
Baca, E., E. Baca-García, M. M. Pérez-Rodríguez and M. L. Cabanas. 2004. Short- and long-term effects of terrorist attacks in Spain. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 9(1-2): 157-170.
-
Ben-Gershon, B., A. Grinshpoon and A. M. Ponizovsky. 2005. Mental health services preparing for the psychological consequences of terrorism. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 10(3-4): 743-753.
-
Berger, R. 2005. An ecological community-based approach for dealing with traumatic stress: A case of terror attack on a kibbutz. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 10(1-2): 513-526.
-
Brom, D. 2005. Voice: Right after the bomb went off. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 10(3-4): 741-742.
-
Campbell, A., E. Cairns and J. Mallett. 2004. Northern Ireland: The psychological impact of “The Troubles”. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 9(1-2): 175-184.
-
Chemtob, C. M. 2005. Finding the gift in the horror: Toward developing a national psychosocial security policy. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 10(3-4): 721-727.
-
Colarossi, L., J. Heyman and M. Phillips. 2005. Social workers' experiences of the World Trade Center disaster: Stressors and their relationship to symptom types. Community Mental Health Journal 41(2): 185-198.
-
Courtois, C. A. 2004. Complex trauma, complex reactions: assessment and treatment. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training 41(4): 412-425.
-
Dalenberg, C. J. 2004. Maintaining the safe and effective therapeutic relationship in the context of distrust and anger: Countertransference and complex trauma. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training 41(4): 438-447.
-
Danieli, Y., D. Brom and J. Sills. 2004. The Trauma of Terrorism: Contextual Considerations. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 9(1-2): 1-17.
-
Danieli, Y. 2004. Guide: Some principles of self-care. Journal of Aggression Maltreatment and Trauma 10(1-2): 663-665.
-
Davidowitz-Farkas, Z. and J. Hutchison-Hall. 2005. Religious care in coping with terrorism. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 10(1-2): 565-576.
-
Delahanty, D. E. 2007. Are we prepared to handle the mental health consequences of terrorism? The American journal of psychiatry 164(2): 189-191.
-
Durodié, B. and S. Wessely. 2002. Resilience or panic? The public and terrorist attack. Lancet 360(9349): 1901-1902.
-
Engdahl, B. 2004. International findings on the impact of terrorism. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 9(1-2): 265-276.
-
Fraidlin, N. J. and B. J Rabin. 2006. Social workers confront terrorist victims: The interventions and the difficulties. Social Work in Health Care 43(2): 115-130.
-
Frankl, V. 1963. Man’s search for meaning: An introduction of logotherapy. New York, NY: Washington Square Press.
-
Fredrickson, B. L., M. M. Tugade, C.E. Waugh and G. R. Larkin. 2003. What good are positive emotions in crises? A prospective study of resilience and emotions following the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11th 2001. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84(2): 365–376.
-
Freyd, J. J. 2002. In the wake of terrorist attack, hatred may mask fear. Analysis of Social Issues and Public Policy 5-8.
-
Friedman, M. J. 2005. Toward a public mental health approach for survivors of terrorism. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 10(1-2): 527-539.
-
Gabriel, R., L. Ferrando, E. S. Corton, et al. 2007. Psychopathological consequences after a terrorist attack: An epidemiological study among victims, the general population, and police officers. European Psychiatry 22: 339-346.
-
Galili-Weisstub, E. and F. Benarroch. 2004. The immediate psychological consequences of terror attacks in children. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 9(3-4): 323-334.
-
Gannon, M. and K. Mihorean. 2005. Criminal Victimization in Canada 2004. Statistics Canada – Catalogue no. 85-002-XPE, Vol. 25, no.7. Ottawa.
-
Ganor, B. 2004. Terrorism as a strategy of psychological warfare. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 9(1-2): 33-43.
-
Green, B. L. 1993. Identifying survivors at risk: Trauma and stressors across events. In International handbook of traumatic stress syndrome, ed. J. P. Wilson and B. Raphael, 135-143. New York, NY: Plenum.
-
Hall, M. J., A.E. Norwood, C. S. Fullerton, R. Gifford and R. J. Ursano. 2004. The psychological burden of bioterrorism. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 9(1-2): 293-304.
-
Heldring, M. and H. Kudler. 2005. The primary care health system as a core resource in response to terrorism. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 10(1-2): 541-552.
-
Herek, G. M., J. R. Gillis and J. C. Cogan. 1999. Psychological sequelae of hate-crime victimization among lesbian, gay and bisexual adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 67(6): 945-951.
-
Herek, G. M., J. R. Gillis, J. C. Cogan and E. K. Glunt. 1997. Hate crime victimization among lesbian, gay and bisexual adults: Prevalence, psychological correlates and methodological issues. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 12(2): 195-215.
-
Hillman, R. 1983. The psychopathology of being held hostage. In Perspectives on terrorism, ed. L. Freedman and Y. Alexander, 157-165. Wilmington , DE: Scholarly Resources Inc.
-
Horan, D. A. 2006. A review of resources for Canadian victims of terrorism (Internal report). Ottawa: Research and Statistics Division, Department of Justice Canada.
-
Jehel, L. and A. Brunet 2004. The long-term effects of terrorism in France. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 9(1-2): 193-200.
-
Jordan, K. 2002. Providing crisis counseling to New Yorkers after the terrorist attack on the World Trade Center. The Family Journal: Counseling and Therapy for Couples and Families 10(2): 139-144.
-
Joshi, P. T. and D. A. O'Donnell. 2003. Consequences of child exposure to war and terrorism. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review 6(4): 275-292.
-
Kaplan, S. J., D. Pelcovitz and V. Fornari. 2005. The treatment of children impacted by the World Trade Center attack. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 10(1-2): 455-466.
-
Khaled, N. 2004. Psychological effects of terrorist attacks in Algeria. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 9(1-2): 201-212.
-
Kinzie, J. D. 2004. Some of the effects of terrorism on refugees. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 9(3-4): 411-420.
-
Kutz, I. and A. Bleich. 2005. Mental health interventions in a general hospital following terrorist attacks: The Israeli experience. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 10(1-2): 425-437.
-
Kutz, I. and R. Dekel. 2006. Follow-up of victims of one terrorist attack in Israel: ASD, PTSD and the perceived threat of Iraqi missile attacks. Personality and Individual Differences 40(8): 1579-1589.
-
Lahad, M. 2005. Terrorism: The community perspective. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 10(3-4): 667-679.
-
Laor, N., Z. Wiener, S. Spirman and L. Wolmer. 2005. Community mental health in emergencies and mass disasters: The Tel-Aviv model. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 10(3-4): 681-694.
-
Lebel, U. and N. Ronel. 2005. Parental discourse and activism as a response to bereavement of fallen sons and civilian terrorist victims. Journal of Loss and Trauma 10(4): 383-405.
-
Levanon, T., E. Flamm-Oren and G. Kahn-Hoffmann. 2005. The need for a continuum of traumas: Who feeds the birds? Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 10(3-4): 729-740.
-
Leymann, H and J. Lindell. 1992. Social support after armed robbery in the workplace. In The Victimology Handbook: Research findings, treatment, and public policy, ed. E. Viano, 285-304. New York: Garland Publishing Inc.
-
Malkinson, R., S. S. Rubin and E. Witztum. 2005. Terror, trauma, and bereavement: implications for theory and therapy. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 10(1-2): 467-477.
-
Marsella, A. J. and F. M. Moghaddam. 2004. The origins and nature of terrorism: Foundations and issues. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 9(1-2): 19-31.
-
McDevitt, J., J. Balboni, L. Garcia and J. Gu. 2001. Consequences for victims: A comparison of bias- and non-bias-motivated assaults. In Crimes of Hate: Selected Readings, ed. P. Gerstenfeld and D. Grant, 45-57. London: Sage.
-
Miller, A.M. and M. Heldring. 2004. Mental health and primary care in a time of terrorism: Psychological impact of terrorist attacks. Families, Systems, and Health 22(1): 7-30.
-
Mikulincer, M., V. Florian and A. Weller. 1993. Attachment styles, coping strategies, and post-traumatic psychological distress: The impact of the Gulf War in Israel. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64(5), 817-826.
-
Nader, K. and Y. Danieli. 2004. Cultural issues in terrorism and in response to terrorism. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 9(3-4): 399-410.
-
Neria, Y., R. Gross, M. Olfson et al. 2006. Post-traumatic stress disorder in primary care one year after the 9/11 attacks. General Hospital Psychiatry 28( 3): 213-222.
-
Neria, Y., R. Gross, B. Litz et al. 2007. Prevalence and Psychological Correlates of Complicated Grief among Bereaved Adults 2.5-3.5 Years after 9/11 Attacks. Journal of Traumatic Stress 20(3): 251-262.
-
Neria Y. and B. T. Litz. 2004. Bereavement by traumatic means: The complex synergy of trauma and grief. Journal of Loss and Trauma 9(1): 73-87.
-
Neria, Y. 2005. Mental Health in the Wake of Terrorism: Making Sense of Mass Casualty Trauma. In 9/11: Mental health in the wake of a terrorist attack, ed. Y. Neria, R. Marshall and E. Susser. New York: Cambridge University Press.
-
Nielsen, T. A., P. Stenstrom and R. Levin. 2006. Nightmare frequency as a function of age, gender, and September 11 2001: Findings from an Internet questionnaire. Dreaming 16(3): 145-158.
-
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. and C. G. Davis. 1999. "Thanks for sharing that": Ruminators and their social support networks. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77(4): 801-814.
-
Nordanger, D. 2007. Coping with loss and bereavement in post-war Tigray, Ethiopia. Transcultural Psychiatry (Dec): 545-565.
-
Office for Victims of Crime. 2004. Antiterrorism and emergency assistance program: responding to victims of terrorism and mass violence crimes. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs.
-
Office for Victims of Crime. 2001. OVC handbook for coping after terrorism: A guide to healing and recovery. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs.
-
Office for Victims of Crime. 2005. Responding to September 11 victims: Lessons learned from the States. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs.
-
Office for Victims of Crime. 2000. Responding to terrorism victims: Oklahoma city and beyond. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs.
-
Ohtani, T., A. Iwanami, K. Kasai et al. 2004. Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in victims of Tokyo subway attack: A 5-year follow-up study. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 58(6):
624-629. -
Pat-Horenczyk, R. 2004. Post-traumatic distress in Israeli adolescents exposed to ongoing terrorism: selected findings from school-based screenings in Jerusalem and nearby settlements. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 9(3-4): 335-347.
-
Pfefferbaum, B. J., E. R. DeVoe, J. Stuber, M. Schiff, T. P. Kleinand G. Fairbrother. 2004. Psychological impact of terrorism on children and families in the United States. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 9(3-4): 305-317.
-
Pivar, I. L. and H. G. Prigerson. 2004. Traumatic loss, complicated grief, and terrorism. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 9(1-2): 277-288.
-
Raphael, B., J. Dunsmore and S. Wooding. 2004. Terror and trauma in Bali: Australia’s mental health disaster response. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 9(1-2): 245-256.
-
Reissman, D. B., S. Spencer, T. L. Tanielian and B. D. Stein. 2005. Integrating behavioral aspects into community preparedness and response systems. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 10(3-4): 707-720.
-
Reyes, G. and J. D. Elhai. 2004. Psychosocial interventions in the early phases of disasters. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training 41(4): 399-411.
-
Ronen, T., G. Rahav and N. Appel. 2003. Adolescent stress responses to a single acute stress and to continuous external stress: Terrorist attacks. Journal of Loss and Trauma 8(4): 261-282.
-
Ross, G. 2004. Guide: Media Guidelines: From the “Trauma Vortex” to the “Healing Vortex”. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 9(3-4): 391-394.
-
Schlenger, W. E. 2004. Psychological impact of the September 11 2001 terrorist attacks: Summary of empirical findings in adults. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 9(1-2): 97-108.
-
Sederer, L. I., K. L. Ryan, K. B. Gill and J. F. Rubin. 2005. Challenges of urban mental health disaster planning. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma, 10(3-4): 695-706.
-
Shamai, M. 2005. Personal experience in professional narratives: The role of helpers' families in their work with terror victims. Family Process 44(2): 203-215.
-
Shichor, D. 2007. Thinking about terrorism and its victims. Victims and Offenders 2(3), 269-287.
-
Silver, R. C., M. Poulin, E. A. Holman, D. N. McIntosh, V. Gil-Rivas and J. Pizarro. 2004. Exploring the myths of coping with a national trauma: A longitudinal study of responses to the September 11th terrorist attacks. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 9(1-2): 129-141.
-
Sofka, C. J. 2004. Assessing loss reactions among older adults: Strategies to evaluate the impact of September 11 2001. Journal of Mental Health Counseling 26(3): 260-281.
-
Somasundaram, D. 2004. Short- and long-term effects on the victims of terror in Sri Lanka. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 9(1-2): 215-228.
-
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). 2004. Mental health response to mass violence and terrorism: A training manual. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
-
Thielman, S. B. 2004. Observations on the impact on Kenyans of the August 7, 1998, bombing of the United States embassy in Nairobi. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 9(1-2): 233-240.
-
Turner, J. T. 1985. Factors influencing the development of Hostage Identification Syndrome. Political Psychology 6(4): 705-711.
-
Vardi, M. 2005. Identification and follow-up by primary care doctors of children with PTSD after terrorist attacks. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 10(1-2): 553-564.
-
Volpe M. R. and S. Strobl. 2005. Restorative justice responses to post–September 11 hate crimes: Potential and challenges. Conflict Resolution Quarterly 22(4): 527-535.
-
Waizer, J., A. Dorin, E. Stoller and R. Laird. 2004. Community-based interventions in New York City after 9/11: A provider’s perspective. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 10(1-2): 499-512.
-
Weimann, G. 2004. The theatre of terror: The psychology of terrorism and the mass media. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 9(3-4): 379-390.
-
Wessely, S. 2005. Don't panic! Short- and long-term psychological reactions to the new terrorism: The role of information and the authorities. Journal of Mental Health (UK) 14(1): 1-6.
-
Wilson, M. 2003. The psychology of hostage taking. In Terrorists, victims and society: Psychological perspectives on terrorism and its consequences, ed. A. Silke, 55-76, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
-
Yeh, C. J., A. C. Inman, A. B. Kim and Y. Okubo. 2006. Asian American families' collectivistic coping strategies in response to 9/11. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology 12(1): 134-148.
- Date modified: