Youth Involvement in Prostitution: A Literature Review and Annotated Bibliography

Appendix A: Annotated Bibliography (continued)

MacVicar, K., & Dillon, M. (1980). Childhood and adolescent development of ten family prostitutes. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 19, 145-159.

This study examines ten adolescent and young adult female prostitutes who were evaluated by a psychiatrist in “weekly or twice weekly psychotherapy over a period of 5 months to 3 1/2 years” (3 respondents had schizophrenic psychoses, and the remaining 7 had ). Psychotic adolescents were involved in prostitution at the height of psychosis and were motivated by a desire to maintain some form of object relationships (to avoid being overtaken by an ). Adolescents who exhibited borderline characteristic structures revealed a chaotic family history, and their world contained a severe split between the self and object; images of good and bad were distinct, and pimps were associated with the all-good images and customers with the all-bad. Most respondents exhibited depersonalization traits as a form of The authors note high rates of attempted suicide among the subjects.

Madsen, C., & Moss, C. (1996). Being Aware, Taking Care. Information Guide for Parents, Counselors, Youth Agencies, Teachers and Police addressing the dangers of street life and exploitation of youth in the sex trade. British Columbia Ministry of Attorney General.

Compiled in Vancouver, B.C., this prevention guide is a resource for anyone concerned with youth-at-risk of becoming involved in prostitution. Information was gathered through questionnaires, focus groups and individual interviews administered to parents of youth prostitutes, police officers, youth services providers and youth who have been involved in prostitution. The guide highlights early warning signs for youth at risk of becoming involved in prostitution, including tips on pimp or recruiter-related activities. The guide encourages parents to evaluate factors at home that would increase their child’s vulnerability to being recruited into prostitution. The guide also outlines strategies of intervention – what to do and who to contact – once a youth becomes involved in the sex trade. The authors suggest that increased awareness and understanding of the dynamics of youth prostitution will help young victims of sexual exploitation.

Mairo, R., Trupin, E., & James, J. (1983). Sex-role fifferentiation in a female delinquent population: Prostitution vs. control samples. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 53, 345-352.

Research examining the relationship between “sex role development and psychological adjustment” primarily relies on adult populations for subjects. This study provides an empirical investigation of sex-role differentiation by comparing juvenile prostitutes with a non-prostitute delinquent control group. 179 subjects were chosen through the King County Youth Services in Seattle, U.S. Respondents were administered the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), a self-report scale that measures an individuals “identification with masculine and feminine traits.” The data reveal that most subjects had an sex role orientation. A relatively higher percentage of respondents appeared to deviate from In addition, there was a relationship between and a “relatively higher incidence of prostitution;” previous research notes a relationship between and in females. Questions are raised concerning the assertion that a positive link exists between in both teenagers and clinical populations. The authors encourage further sex-role differentiation research with a wide range of populations.

Manitoba Child and Youth Secretariat (June 1996) Report of the Working Group on Juvenile Prostitution.

In June 1996, the Manitoba Child and Youth Secretariat released its Report of the Working Group on Juvenile Prostitution. The report includes issues and suggestions concerning the youth sex trade that were identified by working group members, parents of street involved children (including parents of juvenile prostitutes), and clients of the Training Employment Resources for Women (T.E.R.F., a support program for females between the ages of 15 to 18 who are attempting to exit prostitution). In addition, the report outlines a comprehensive deterrence strategy with several expected outcomes: decrease the involvement of youth in prostitution, list convicted procurers of young prostitutes on a child abuse registry (the Report advocates changes to provincial child welfare legislation so as to treat juvenile prostitution as child abuse), and decrease the incidence of STD and HIV among high-risk youth involved in prostitution. The Report estimates that approximately 600 youth are involved in street prostitution in Winnipeg, and that a minimum of 2,000 youth are involved in prostitution when accounting for the off-street trade. In addition to discussing the antecedents of youth prostitution, the Report outlines several harm reduction strategies and programs for helping young prostitutes exit the sex trade.

Mansson, S-A., &Hedin, U-C. (1999). Breaking the Matthew Effect – On women leaving prostitution. International Journal of Social Welfare, 8, 67-77.

There is a lack of research examining the reasons why and how women breakaway from a life of prostitution. “The purpose of this paper is to report some empirical findings from a Swedish study of women leaving a life in the sex trade.” Researchers interviewed 23 women between the ages of 20 and 58 years, who had left prostitution. The majority, 17 out of 23, had been involved in prostitution for a minimum of 5 years. Seventy-five percent of the women interviewed had experienced a difficult childhood including sexual abuse, emotionally negative parents and other types of social problems. The process of becoming involved with prostitution was influenced by previous destructive events, accompanied by feelings of low self-esteem. “Many of the women were labeled as “whores” early, often long before their actual entry into prostitution. Given such a perspective, the woman’s debut into prostitution is often rather undramatic, even if the context in which it takes place can be quite chaotic.” The authors suggest that some of the women exited prostitution following an important event or turning point, such as an eye opening experience, a traumatic event or a positive life experience. For others, the breakaway developed over time and, in a process that was often unconscious to the individual. Almost all of the respondents described the “period after their break with prostitution as a very difficult time.” Challenges included working through and understanding the experiences of life in prostitution, dealing with the shame, living in a marginal situation, and dealing with intimate and close relationships. The authors argue that an individual’s commitment to change plays an important role in the process of change – a process encouraged by a variety of interpsychological and interpersonal factors. “However, at the end of the day, it is important not to end up in too individualistic explanations. A person’s creative and innovative capacities definitely depend on reliable social relations and institutions in her environment.”

Markos, A., Wade, A., & Walzman, M. (1994). “The adolescent male prostitute and sexually transmitted diseases, HIV and AIDS. Journal of Adolescence, 17, 123-130.

Studies on the backgrounds of male prostitutes provide important information on high-risk situational experiences, such as exposure to sexually transmitted disease and HIV infection. Important background variables include psychological, behavioral and social and economic factors. The high incidence of sexually transmitted diseases among teenage male prostitutes suggests a possible risk of HIV infection. Information on male teenagers strongly indicates there is no correlation between “sexual knowledge, sexual practice, and sexually transmitted diseases, HIV and AIDS.” The authors argue there is a need for sexual education programs that will impact the sexual practices of adolescent male prostitutes.

Mathews, F. (1989). Familial strangers: A study of adolescent prostitution.(Revised Ed.) Central Toronto Youth Services.

This document synthesizes a research study that aimed to develop relevant and appropriate services for adolescent prostitutes. The author contends that research on juvenile prostitution must incorporate the feelings, thoughts and concerns that youth have towards the individuals and agencies that intervene in their lives. The original study used multiple methods of inquiry, including in person interviews, questionnaires, participant observation, and a field study. Politicians, the police, service agencies, social workers, street workers and young prostitutes were invited to participate in the study. The findings indicate that those responsible for dealing with adolescent prostitution inadvertently help facilitate a youth’s decision to become involved (and stay involved) in prostitution. The author develops a Social Effects Model that treats the decision to prostitute “not as a problem for the adolescent but as a solution.” Factors contributing to a youth’s decision to exit prostitution, and recommendations for combating juvenile prostitution are outlined.

McCarthy, B. (1995).On the streets: Youth in Vancouver. B.C.: Ministry of Social Services.

In 1992, the Minister of Social Services in British Columbia commissioned research on the “situation confronting ‘street kids’ in Vancouver.” This study used self-report questionnaires and in-person interviews to ask 152 street involved youth (between 14 to 24 years of age and without a permanent shelter) about their “demographic characteristics,” “present living conditions, employment history, family background and street experiences.” Data was compared to previous research on street involved youth in Vancouver and research on the youth population in Vancouver and other Canadian cities. The data reveal that in comparison to school youth, street involved youth experienced more intrafamilial physical and sexual abuse, and they were more likely to have parents with substance abuse problems. Once on the streets, many youth become involved in various criminal activities (including prostitution) in order to subsist, or because of developing criminal associations With respect to prostitution, the author notes that youth involved in the sex trade were influenced by intrafamilial sexual and physical abuse, and many youth entered prostitution to survive, i.e., sell sex for food and shelter. The author advocates policies that decrease the amount of time that youth spend on the street as a tool to “affect street youth’s involvement in street crime.”

McCarthy, B., & Hagan, J. (1992). Mean streets: The theoretical significance of situational delinquency among homeless youths. American Journal of Sociology, 98 (3), 597-627.

This research re-examines the relationship between adverse situations and participation in crime. The authors aim to provide some understanding of why street youth participate in various types of criminal activities. During 1987 and 1988, self-report questionnaires were administered to homeless youth in Toronto (N=390) and a sample of adolescents (N=562). An integration of strain and control theories, which consider was used to analyze the data. Among other things, the data reveal that involvement in theft and prostitution “increases with problems of shelter; and prostitution increases with unemployment.” Prostitution is related to several background variables, including sexual abuse, , and a family history in the The authors argue that an precipitate involvement in crime, i.e., hunger is related to theft of food, problems of unemployment and shelter is related to involvement in prostitution. The data contributes to our theoretical understandings of street life and crime: “our purpose here is to push sociological criminology...towards foreground causes of delinquency and crime, through the study of criminogenic situations.”

McCarthy, B., & Hagan, J. (1991). Homelessness: A criminogenic situation? British Journal of Criminology, 31 (4), 393-410.

According to the authors, criminologists have overlooked an important body of research that examines the relationship between adverse situations and participation in crime. Not discounting the significance of background variables to criminal activity, the authors speculate that situational factors may independently cause crime. Self-report data from a sample of homeless youth (N=390) in Toronto, Canada was used to investigate whether or not criminal activity increases with homelessness. Participants report on their criminal activity at home, and their participation in crime after leaving home. The results indicate that a sizable proportion of youth participated in more criminal activity after leaving home. Significant increases are witnessed in several composite measures, including prostitution. Accounting for age, gender and number of previous homeless experiences does not impact the results. Participation in crime appears to be strongly linked with the conditions that characterize homelessness.

McCarthy, B. (1995).On the streets: Youth in Vancouver. B.C.: Ministry of Social Services.

This research reveals that street youth are more likely to participate in criminal activity through their associations with other street people. Many street youth report involvement in theft, drug selling, prostitution, and violent crimes. The author argues that involvement in crime is precipitated by physical and sexual abuse and other factors related to intrafamilial dysfunction; however, it is also associated with situational street experiences (e.g., lacking basic necessities such as hunger, sleeping in parks and walking the streets).

McCarthy, B., & Hagan, J. (1995). Getting into street crime: The structure and process of criminal embeddedness. Social Science Research, 24, 63-95.

This research examines the relationship between the situational factors of being a street youth and involvement in criminal activities. The authors combine Granovetter’s research on embeddedness, Coleman’s work on social capital and Sutherland’s differential association theory to hypothesize that association in deviant (on the street) provides access to teacher-student relationships where individuals learn about criminal (what the authors refer to as criminal capital). McCarthy and Hagan test their hypothesis with “structural equation models of drug-selling, theft and prostitution” among a sample of 390 youth (66% male and 34% female) living on the streets (i.e., living in shelters, hostels, or on the street). The results confirm that associations with criminal networks expose street youth to teacher-student (tutelage) relationships that subsequently increases their involvement in crime. The data do not change when controlling for home and school experiences, time at risk, situational challenges, and pervious involvement in crime. The authors argue their research is contrary to notions that crime is an egotistical and impulsive act; instead, the acquisition of “criminal capital in a tutelage relationship” appears to enhance participation in crime. A social concept of crime emerges, whereby the adverse conditions of the street lead to associations with criminal networks and the involvement in criminal activity.

McCarthy, B., Hagan, J., & Climenhage, J. (1991). Agency Report on Toronto and Vancouver Street Youth Study. Unpublished manuscript.

This is a collaborative study between researchers in the department of sociology at the Universities of Victoria and Toronto on the background of street youth, and their experiences once they leave home. This three-wave panel study focuses on family and school experiences, participation in crime, and exit services accessed by youth. Self-report questionnaires and in-person interviews are administered to 482 street youths (330 in Toronto and 152 in Vancouver) aged 16 to 24. The results provide information on demographic characteristics, and reveals that factors contributing to street youth involvement in crime vary by offence type and are “influenced by both background and situational factors.” A social welfare model characterizes Toronto’s approach to street youth and crime, while Vancouver’s approach is based on a crime control oriented model that exposes youth to extended opportunities to criminal activity. The authors conclude their analysis supports the notion that urban crime and social polices affects the incidence of some crime.

McClanahan, S., McClelland, G., Abram, K., & Teplin, L. (1999). Pathways into prostitution among female jail detainees and their implications for mental health services. Psychiatric Services, 50 (12) , 1606-1613.

The authors argue there is a paucity of research examining precursors to prostitution. In addition to small sample sizes and less than ideal comparison groups, few studies have examined the interrelationship among involvement in prostitution and childhood sexual victimization, running away and drug use. The purpose of this study is to explore these pathways (and their interrelationship) into prostitution. The authors conducted structured interviews with 1,142 female detainees at the Cook County Department of Corrections between 1991-1993. Interview questions focused on history of involvement in prostitution, as well as experiences of childhood sexual abuse, running away and drug abuse. More than one-third of the sample indicated they had been involved in prostitution. The authors argue “childhood sexual victimization has a lifelong effect on entry into prostitution, doubling or nearly doubling the odds of entry into the sex trade. Having run away, by contrast, affected entry into routine prostitution only in the early adolescent years, increasing the odds of entry into prostitution during that period by more than 40 times.” Drug abuse was found to follow rather than precede involvement in prostitution. Despite several limitations (e.g. limits of self-report data, limited opportunity for respondents to discuss their experiences, and the bias sample of jail detainees), the authors confirm previous studies, which suggest that childhood sexual abuse and running away are risk factors for entry into prostitution. The authors argue that early recovery of children who run away and emotionally and environmentally stable support systems for youth are needed to prevent entry into the sex trade. Moreover, victims of childhood sexual abuse need “mental health services to help them come to terms with their victimization and restore a sense of mastery and control over their lives.”

* McCreary Centre Society. (1999). Our kids too: Sexually exploited youth in British Columbia: An adolescent health survey. Burnaby, B.C.

This report explores the needs of youth who have been involved in prostitution in “smaller urban centres” in British Columbia. Forty-four youth under the age of 19 who had exchanged sex for were included in the study. Among the findings: most were female; one-third was Aboriginal; 80% had been involved in government care; and 90% had experienced physical or sexual abuse. Many of the youth had used alcohol and drugs and one-half had attempted suicide. The youth also noted the importance of safe housing, education and employment opportunities and alcohol and drug services.

McDonald, L., Moore, B., & Timoshinka, N. (2000). Migrant sex workers from Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union: The Canadian case.” Status of Women Canada.

The United Nations estimates that “four million people are trafficked throughout the world each year.” The number of people trafficked into Canada ranges from 8,000 to 16,000. Many observers suggest that the sex trade is a burgeoning form of trafficking. Unfortunately, there is no reliable research on the nature and extent of trafficking of women for the purpose of prostitution, including a lack of information about the number of women trafficked into Canada. The purpose of this study is to explore the trafficking of women from Central and Eastern Europe to Canada. In-depth interviews were conducted with 20 women involved in the sex trade, 15 service providers, and 15 key informants (e.g. police, massage parlour owners, and immigration officials). Most respondents working in the sex trade were between 18-26, however, the authors suggest that many appeared to be under the age of 18, but were “hesitant to provide their age to the interviewers.” In developing the methodology, the sex trade workers (who were consulted in the design of the study) objected to the term ; they argued that it was inappropriate as not all sex trade workers were “…helpless victims who did not choose their work or to migrate to Canada.” The authors found that political and economic changes in the former Soviet Union and the transition to a market economy in Central and Eastern Europe has contributed to as a feminization of poverty, making some women vulnerable to exploitation through trafficking. “Conditions of recruitment, migration and employment were, in many cases, deplorable and characterized by exploitation, control and illegal activity.” They also found few social services for sex trade workers from the Slavic region and that many women avoided services because of their illegal immigration status. The report includes recommendations for addressing the trafficking of women to Canada.

McIntyre, S. (1999). The youngest profession – the oldest oppression: A study of sex work. In C. Bagley, & K. Mallick (Eds.), Child Sexual Abuse and Adult Offender New Theory and Research. London: Ashgate.

The author conducted interviews with 50 sex trade workers (41 females) in Calgary, Alberta. Using grounded theory and a feminist approach to data interpretation, McIntyre asked respondents a broad range of In general, the author argues that many youth to the streets where their “street family looks after their needs and they feel wanted, nurtured, supported and protected.” Eighty-two percent of the sample was prior to involvement with sex work, while three-quarters had a history of physical abuse. The mean age of entry into prostitution was 14 (75% starting before age 16 and 86% before age 18). Once involved in the sex trade, most (82%) had experienced Other dangers of the lifestyle include the use of drugs to cope with prostitution, a fast-paced, “living on the edge lifestyle,” a lack of connection/support, and physical issues (e.g. exhaustion). The author criticises existing literature that characterises youth involvement in the sex trade as a form of individual pathology. Instead, the decision to prostitute must be understood within social structural issues such as “patriarchy, capitalism, the subordinate positioning of women and lack of economic opportunity”. The demand aspect of the trade also must be examined when discussing the youth sex trade – “women’s sexual script as the provider and males’ need for penis feeding are central to the issue of prostitution and patriarchy.” The author develops a typology to help explain entry into prostitution: family origin, separation and attachment, survival, autonomy, cycle of abuse, and power and control. “The typology explains what attracts and maintains an individual in sex work; this typology is not static in nature and alters over time for each individual.”

McLeod, E. (1982). Women working: Prostitution now. London: Crook Helm.

Most explanations of characterize male customers as individuals with or the by-product of “macho desire for women as sex objects.” The author conducted in-depth interviews with 20 clients and talked with prostitutes to help understand why men purchase sexual services. The data suggest a substantially different picture of male clients than what is obtained in previous studies of this population. The author asserts that clients cannot be explained away as the their actions reflect “men’s dominant social position in various ways. Obtaining sexual relief through payments, whatever one thinks of the worth of the activity, is not unique to men but it is not proscribed for them to the degree that it is for women. Much of what men want for prostitutes is a matter of self-centred gratification.” In this respect, men are also “victims of existing social structures.” The author argues that men go to prostitutes because stereotypical heterosexual roles emphasize and the institution of marriage has failed to fulfill their “emotional and sexual needs, but they are too frightened to reveal the truth of their experience of marriage.”

McMullen, R.J. (1988). Boys involved in prostitution. Youth and Policy, 28, 35-42.

This document reviews the “behavioral dynamics of youth prostitution,” and the conditions associated with the youth sex trade in London. The author notes that youth involved in prostitution will often perceive themselves to be in a position of power vis-à-vis the customer – a sort of ‘game’ to gain control. In reality, children and youth involved in prostitution are subjected to a variety of risks (e.g., violence, rape, sexually transmitted disease and substance abuse). The author notes that moral reactions to prostitution reveals more about the society its morality than about the phenomenon of youth prostitution. The prostitution label impacts a youth’s self-identity and ego development. In this respect there is a need to understand that many of these youth involved in prostitution are (often from a physically and sexually abusive home situation) trying to survive. The paper concludes with a description of a support and counseling service (Streetwise) for young prostitutes that strives to empower young people, without asserting a that strives to ‘save’ youth from the sex trade.

McCormick, N. (1986). Reflections on criticisms of the Badgley report. In J. Lowman, M. Jackson, T. Palys, & S. Gavigan (Eds.), Regulating sex: An anthology of commentaries on the findings and recommendations of the Badgley and Fraser reports, Burnaby, B.C.: Simon Fraser University.

Response following the release of the Committee on Sexual Offences Against Children and Youth Report (the Badgley Report) ranged from shock and disbelief about the prevalence of child sexual abuse, to professional commentaries that criticized the Report on methodological and ideological grounds. In this paper, Badgley Committee member Norma McCormick reviews several comments and criticisms leveled at the Committee’s findings: 1) that the incidence of child sexual abuse was not true; 2) that the report sensationalized the phenomenon; 3) that child sexual abuse is an inevitable part of our society; 4) the Report is too legalistic and paternalistic in its approach. After addressing each concern, the author argues that the Badgley Committee undertook the difficult task of producing “a unanimous set of recommendations,” and that the end result is “unashamedly child centred.”