Youth Involvement in Prostitution: A Literature Review and Annotated Bibliography

Appendix A: Annotated Bibliography (continued)

Nandon, S.M., Koverola, C. & Schludermann, E.H. (1998). Antecedents to prostitution: Childhood victimization. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13 (2), 206-221.

Research on antecedents to prostitution “suffers from serious methodological flaws,” which include: “measures without established psychometric properties;” retrospective reporting by adult prostitutes; the lack of a comparison group; or comparison groups that were significantly different than prostitute samples. Based on the extant literature, the authors assume that prostitutes are more likely to have run away from a physically and sexually abusive home life, that the nature of their abuse is different from non-prostitute groups, and they are more likely to have lived in a dysfunctional family setting, i.e., alcoholic parents, violence between parents and poor self-esteem. The authors conducted interviews (based on Silbert’s Sexual Assault Experiences Questionnaire) with 45 adolescent female prostitutes and 37 adolescent non-prostitutes. Questions focused on “background information, prostitution history, childhood sexual victimization, childhood physical abuse, leaving home, adolescent alcohol use, adolescent drug use, parental alcohol use, interparental violence, family functioning, and self esteem.” The results replicated previous findings with respect to several background experiences of prostitutes, i.e., childhood physical and sexual abuse, intrafamilial violence, substance abuse problems, and poor self-esteem. However, “these factors, previously identified as associated with prostitution, failed to discriminate the prostitutes and non-prostitutes groups.” Nevertheless, prostitutes run away from home more frequently, which suggests “if basic needs can be met by legitimate means, youth may not feel it necessary to resort to prostitution.”

National Centre for Missing and Exploited Children. (1992). Female Juvenile Prostitution: Problem and Response. Washington, D.C.

This report examines the problem of youth prostitution from the perspective of the youth and those who have profited from the sex trade. The first chapter documents case histories of 14 female prostitutes and 6 male pimps. Respondents were selected from a sample of interviews with prostitutes who entered the sex trade as youth and who participated in two outreach programs. The second chapter discusses how to identify youth prostitution issues and concerns within the community and how to implement programs to address the phenomenon. The third chapter explains a program for juveniles (the Paul and Lisa program) in Connecticut, New Jersey and New York.

O’Neill, M. (2001). Prostitution and feminism: Towards a politics of feelingPolity Press in Association with Blackwell Publishers Ltd.

In this book, Maggie O’Neill attempts to address the complexities of “understanding feminist responses to prostitution at the turn of the century.” The author focuses on the interrelationships between “feminist research, feminist theory and feminist practice in late modern/postmodern times.” In addition to providing a socio-cultural analysis of prostitution, O’Neill surveys the primary feminist debates on prostitution, provides ethnographic data with women and youth involved in prostitution, and presents “a renewed methodology for social science research, defined as ethno-mimesis.” (Ethno-mimesis combines ethnographic research and the re-presentation of ethnographic data in visual/artistic form.) Two chapters directly relate to youth prostitution. Chapter 3 examines pathways into prostitution, focusing on the “physic and social processes” that lead some women to enter prostitution. O’Neill reveals that most women entered prostitution for “financial reasons,” and that many were introduced to the trade by acquaintances (e.g. met someone – sometimes a pimp – and they started prostituting as a means of subsistence). Further, with few community supports, many youth living independently or in care become involved in the sex trade. Chapter 4 examines the interrelationship between “prostitution, homelessness, leaving care and runaways and the central importance of developing social knowledge as social critique, as feminist praxis.” The Chapter reveals that treating youth as victims may not “engender positive outcomes…Analogous to the literature on domestic violence, treating young people as ‘survivors’ rather than ‘victims’ may be a better approach.” An overall message of the chapter is that we need to stop treating young people as “social junk” and “criminals” and start providing child-centred services. O’Neill argues, “…the way we respond as a society to this issue is a mark of our ‘postemotionalism’ or ‘compassion fatigue’.”

Opperman, M. (1999). Sex tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 26, (2), 251-266.

Sex tourism traditionally has been defined as “…tourism for commercial sex purposes.” In this article, Martin Opperman reviews the existing sex tourism literature and “proposes a holistic framework that moves beyond the traditional use of monetary exchange as the defining criteria of sex tourism.” The author differentiates sex tourism from prostitution by outlining five definitional parameters that should be considered when attempting to define sex tourism: purpose of travel, length of time, relationship, sexual encounter, and who falls in this category of travel. The author examines issues such as the flow of the “sex provider” and “sex seeker” from and to developed and developing countries, and the sexual exploitation of the sex provider. Difficulties associated with defining sex tourists and sex tourism include multiple purposes of travel, and that the customer spends extended periods of time with the same prostitute, offering accommodation, travel or clothing instead of cash. The relationship that develops between the customer and prostitute varies and can sometimes become quite complex. “One thus needs to move away from overt simplification and develop a wider interpretation of sex tourists and sex tourism.” The author concludes that sex tourism should be defined along a holistic and multi-dimensional scale, and that more research is needed to further investigate and understand the “diverse issues surrounding sex tourism.”

Ottawa-Carleton Regional Police Services. (1999). Street-level prostitution: Report on est practices symposium.

During the mid-1990s, the Ottawa-Carleton Regional Police Service (OCRPS) received numerous complaints about the nuisances associated with street-level prostitution. In response, the OCRPS convened a meeting of community and agency representatives, “developed community- and agency-developed responses,” and on September 18 and 19, 1997, hosted a “Best Practices Symposium on Street-Level Prostitution.” The purpose of this handbook is to synthesize the proceeding of the Symposium and provide practitioners with examples of “successful approaches to the issue of street-level prostitution.” During the Symposium participants discussed challenges associated with the street trade, including the issues and problems associated with youth involvement in prostitution. Many participants argued that comprehensive initiatives should be undertaken to prevent the “recruitment and exploitation of children and youth in prostitution,” and they highlighted the importance of prevention, education and harm reduction programs (e.g., to deal with HIV concerns). The report includes information about prostitution-related programs and best practices (e.g. john schools, Provincial Prostitution Unit of British Columbia, Youth Services Bureau of Ottawa-Carleton, Covenant house, and Streetlight Support Services).

Paperny, D., & Deisher, R. (1983). Maltreatment of adolescents: The relationship to a predisposition toward violent behaviour and delinquency. Adolescence, 18, 499-506.

This article reviews the literature on the association between adolescent maltreatment abuse and exploitation, and subsequent involvement in violent and other criminal activity. The review focuses on the association between intrafamilial family abuse and antisocial behaviour (the authors differentiate child abuse from adolescent abuse). The authors outline debates concerning the impact of various maltreatment, and research on the association between sexual abuse and involvement in male sexual offences and male prostitution. Evidence suggests that adolescents who experience conflict with the juvenile justice system may be, or have been victims of various types of abuse and exploitation. Service practitioners must understand the background characteristics of the youths they are attempting to help.

Pawar, M.S. (1991). Prostitution and the girl child. Indian Journal of Social Work, 52 (1), 105-113.

The government of India has introduced the Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act (ITPA) and several state laws that prohibit trafficking persons for the purpose of prostitution. Despite these measures, the sexual exploitation of children and females continues to spread at an “alarming rate.” The author compares and contrasts official statistics and figures concerning the enforcement of the ITPA. The information reveals that enforcement of this legislation “leaves much to be desired,” and that amendments to the ITPA have not affected the proliferation of the sexual exploitation of children and females.

Pennbridge, J., Freese, T., & MacKenzie, R. (1992). High risk behaviours among street youth in Hollywood, California.AIDS Education and Prevention, (Suppl.), 24-33.

This study examines the high-risk sex and substance use activities of 446 male street youth (aged 14-23) in Hollywood, California. The authors compare participants involved in “survival sex” and those involved in “recreational sex.” The data reveal that 90% of the males in the sample were sexually active; 27.1% had prostituted in the last 3 months, and participation in prostitution was most common among older, gay males. The authors identify several risk factors that emerge from the data, including inconsistent condom use, high-risk sexual activities (during both survival and recreational sex), numerous sexual partners, intravenous drug use, and the consumption of alcohol and drugs during sex.

Pheterson, G. (1996). Street Kids,In Prostitution Prism. Amsterdam University Press.

In this chapter, the author examines the social and legal forces that intervene in the lives of street involved youth. Pheterson argues that the oppression of youth is perpetuated by society, which treats the youth as “outlaw non-citizens” who are “dispensable, unworthy and lesser beings.” Attempts to remedy the condition of young people have centered on returning youth to their families or a state-run institution, despite the fact that neither situation may be “safe or tolerable for the young person concerned.” “Sincere advocates” have demanded that street involved and sexually exploited youth (including youth involved in prostitution) be treated “like children, not criminals.” However, Pheterson warns that protectionist discourse is often a euphemism for control: “that control is clothed in language of ‘protection,’ ‘prevention,’ ‘re-habilitation’ and ‘re-insertion’ of ‘victims’ but the message is consistently a prohibition of self-determination.” Pheterson argues that the concepts of “prostitute” and “prostitution” serve as a means of regulating the agency of all women. Overall, the author advocates a social and legal framework that differentiates between the state role of providing resources and care with the prohibition of autonomy.

Pleak, R., & Meyer-Bahlburg, H. (1990). Sexual behavior and AIDS knowledge of young male prostitutes in Manhattan, The Journal of Sex Research, 27, 557-588.

This study uses structured interviews with 50 male prostitutes (age 14-27) in Manhattan to examine their “sexual orientation, sexual behaviour, knowledge of AIDS, and substance abuse.” 50% of the sample was homosexual, 26% bisexual, and 24% heterosexual. The data reveal that respondents involved in anal intercourse used condoms during an average of 85% of the encounters. The use of safe sex practices depended on the sexual partner: respondents were safest with customers, less safe during same sex encounters for pleasure, and “least safe with female partners.” The authors indicate that male prostitutes expose themselves to greatest risk for HIV infection through “differential condom use” and other unsafe sexual practices. Respondents who reported an understanding of AIDS related issues were more likely to practice safe sex. Drug and alcohol abuse and other variables were not correlated with “degree of safety in sex.” The authors conclude that methods used for this study can help in the assessment of male prostitutes and intervention programs.

Plumridge, E.W., Chetwynd, S., & Reed, A. (1997). Control and condoms in commercial sex: client perspectives. Sociology of Health and Illness, 19 (2), 228-243.

This research focuses on condom use and the “sexual pleasure” of clients and prostitutes in the heterosexual commercial sex trade. Interviews are conducted with 24 male clients who visited a massage parlour in Christchurch, New Zealand. The data provide information on attitudes toward safe sex procedures, the process of bargaining for sex, and the “performance of sex.” The respondents indicate that the decision to have sex was the only time in the process that they had power. Decisions concerning safe sex practices and the supply of condoms and condom failures were considered the responsibility of the prostitute. Clients suggested they allowed the prostitutes to control her “own body and sexual pleasure.” Finally, many customers displayed themselves to prostitutes in “morally creditable and sexually sophisticated terms.”

Potter, K., Martin, J. & Romans, S. (1999). Early development experiences of female sex workers: A comparative study.. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 33, 935-940.

Previous research on youth prostitution suggests that childhood sexual abuse and leaving home at a young age are important antecedents to involvement in the sex trade. “The aim of this paper is to explore the early family environment of a sample of female sex workers and compare the findings with a large community data set of similarly aged women.” Twenty-nine sex workers between 16 and 47 years of age were selected through a snowball sampling method and administered a semi-structured interview that asked questions about family life, physical and sexual abuse, and socio-economic status. The control group consisted of 680 women of similar ages. Sex workers were more likely than the control group to leave home before the age of 15 (one-fifth of the sex workers compared to 2% of the control group). In comparison to the control group, sex workers reported that that their parents were significantly less caring. Over 80% of the sex workers had experienced some form of physical abuse before the age of 16. Sex workers were more likely than the control group to “report childhood sexual abuse” and “were more likely to have become pregnant before the age of 19 years and to not have completed a tertiary study.” The sample of sex workers “came from families with more interpersonal difficulties during childhood and adolescence” than did the control group. The results provide suggestions with respect to several important factors contributing to a person’s decision to enter prostitution. However, “they need to be understood in the context of the later educational and occupational choices confronting women as they sort out work patterns.”

Price, V. (1989). Characteristics and needs of Boston street youth: One agency’s response. Children and Youth Services Review, 11, 75-90.

There are important differences between homeless youth, runaway youth and youth involved in prostitution. A majority of street youth witnessed considerable intrafamilial emotional and substance abuse problems before ending up on the streets. Bridge Over Troubled Waters is a multi-service agency for homeless and runaway youth in Boston, Massachusetts. The agency is recognized for its work with street youth, and the program attempts to design and deliver services that suit the characteristics and needs of street involved youth.

Price, V,, Scanlon, B., &Janus, M.D. (1984). Social characteristics of adolescent male prostitution. Victimology: An International Journal, 9, 211-221.

This research examines teenage male prostitution on two levels: 1) different methods of prostitution, and 2) patterns of street behaviour. The authors conducted interviews with 28 teenage males involved in prostitution to explore their “family history, parental and sibling relationship patterns, school involvement, and friendship patterns.” Among the findings: the youth indicate family problems, characterized by memories of fights between parents, alcohol abuse, and neglect. Poor relationships with families, adults and friends were commonplace. The youth identified themselves as isolated, victimized, and having negative experiences in school and with peers. The data suggest an alternative approach for individuals attempting to treat teenage males involved in prostitution. The sexual victimization of prostitution is an important treatment component; however “primary therapeutic issues are not necessarily sexual for typical adolescent issues,” and are probably linked to problems of “arrested development.” The authors conclude that survival issues associated with prostitution must be addressed before attempting to deal with “nuanced psychological problems.”

Pyett, P., & Warr, D. (1999). Women at risk in sex work: Strategies for survival. Journal of Sociology, 35, (2), 183-197.

This paper reviews a qualitative study of “female sex workers who were identified as particularly vulnerable to risks to their sexual health and physical safety” (conducted in Melbourne, Australia). Twenty-four women sex workers between the ages of 14 and 47 years were asked questions about issues of safe sex and risk management in their work, health and private lives. Issues discussed included condom use with clients and other sexual partners, drug use, STDs and other health issues, social isolation, experience of violence, and risk management strategies. One quarter of the women had become involved in the sex trade before the age of sixteen, and financial hardship was most often cited as a reason for entering prostitution. Most street workers were involved in injection drug use and two-thirds of were homeless or without stable accommodation. A majority of respondents reported little or no social support from friends, family or other workers, and they reported frequent physical assaults and difficulty enforcing condom use with clients. Youthfulness, inexperience and the effects of drugs or alcohol played an important part in a woman’s inability to control their work situations. “The very young women who had been working on the streets for only a year or less had few skills for actively managing the paid sexual encounter.” Homelessness, social isolation, heavy drug use and a history of physical and sexual abuse as children characterized the respondents’ backgrounds. The authors argue for decriminalizing all forms of prostitution to increase safety for all women involved in the sex trade. They further argue that “problems associated with homelessness, drug use and extreme social isolation far outweigh most of the risks associated with sex work.”