Youth Involvement in Prostitution: A Literature Review and Annotated Bibliography

Appendix A: Annotated Bibliography (continued)

Task Force on Children Involved in Prostitution. (1997). Children Involved in Prostitution. Edmonton, Alberta: Ministry of Family and Social Services.

The Task Force on Children Involved in Prostitution was introduced in response to growing concerns about children involved in prostitution in Alberta. The Task Force was mandated to “examine the work done and the recommendations made by various tasks forces and communities; research and examine programs in other jurisdictions which may be effective within Alberta; make recommendations for action to the Minister of Alberta Family and Social Services.” The Task Force argued that children involved in prostitution must be seen as victims of abuse. “These children, if not abused while at home, are certainly victims of sexual abuse when they are used by either a pimp or john. The philosophical framework which encompasses all of the recommendations of the Task Force is that children involved in prostitution are victims of sexual abuse.” The Report provides legal, education, health and social support recommendations for combating youth prostitution. The main factors contributing to a youth’s decision to enter prostitution include school and family difficulties (e.g. physical and emotional abuse), unconventional peers and early sexual experiences. Barriers to leaving the streets include low self-esteem, few positive role models, loose or dysfunctional family ties, abuse of drugs and alcohol and control by an individual such as a pimp or “boyfriend.” Among the recommendations: amend s.212(4) of the Criminal Code to make it easier to enforce; introduce a “Children Involved in Prostitution Act” to legislate support for a continuum of services approach; educate parents about the issues of child prostitution; develop a media campaign to increase public awareness of child prostitution. The Task force stresses the importance of prevention, early intervention and treatment for children involved in prostitution. “These children belong to our communities and our families. We must all work together to stop the abuse of our children.”

Tremble, B. (1993). Prostitution and survival: Interviews with gay street youth” The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 2, 39-45.

This study draws upon interviews with gay street youth in Toronto, Ontario to examine their quality of life, their process of becoming street involved, and general characteristics. The data reveal these youth represent a variety of ethnic, cultural and socio-economic groups, and their family circumstance involved frequent contact with social services. In addition, a majority of youth ran away from an abusive home life, or from “placement facilities.” The author lists recommendations for service providers who deal with gay street youth (e.g. end moral bias towards prostitution, provide appropriate life and social skills, and pay attention to “culturally different perceptions of prostitution”).

Udegbe, I.B., &Fajimolu, O.O. (1992). Family structure, parental attachment, need for affiliation and autonomy as factors distinguishing between young prostitutes and non-prostitutes.Indian Journal of Behaviour, 16, 20-27.

This research compares 78 female prostitutes (average age 22) with 85 female (undergraduate) non-prostitutes on a variety of factors, including family circumstances, peer associations, affiliations needs, and desire for autonomy. Self-report questionnaires were administered to the entire sample (all between the ages of 15-27). The data indicate that prostitutes tend to have polygamous fathers, mothers who were married more than once, proportionally more siblings, and they left home at an earlier age. In addition, the prostitute sample was not as attached to their parents as non-prostitutes. No between-group difference was found with respect to affiliation needs and the desire for autonomy.

Unger, J., Simon, T., Newman, T., Montgomery, S., Kipke, M., & Albornoz, M. (1998). Early adolescent street youth: An overlooked population with unique problems and service needs. Journal of Early Adolescence, 18(4), 325-348.

The authors of this article examine the needs and problems of early adolescent street youth (12 through 15 years of age). Younger adolescents are at higher risk for “negative psychological and physical consequences of life on the streets” (e.g. immature decision-making skills, susceptible to peer influence, exposure to deviant peer groups, lack adult and parental guidance and reluctance to use street-based services). This study explored the demographic and lifestyle characteristics of 245 street youth in Los Angeles and San Diego, California. Eighty-nine percent of the sample was 14 or 15 years of age, 51% were male and 42% were Caucasian. Identification with the “gay/bisexual youth” group was positively correlated with identification with the “sex workers” group. Forty-nine percent of the early adolescents were homeless or living in a “location that was not intended to be a permanent residence.” “Of those homeless early adolescents, 33 (28%) had been homeless for 1 year or more.” The most common sources of money for the early adolescents were parents/family, panhandling and friends, although 40% of the youth reported engaging in some illicit activity such as prostitution, drug dealing, mugging, or stealing. Further research is required to determine the catalysts of running away or being thrown away from home, to identify factors that may protect youth against homelessness, and whether interventions targeted toward involvement in the street economy will reduce homelessness and street life.

Visano, L. (1987).This idle trade: The occupational patterns of male prostitution. Concord: VistaSana Books.

Relying on an interactionist analytic framework, this book discusses the construction of “deviant work and the meaning of deviant work as interpreted by different actors.” The author used participant observation, group discussions, and case histories to examine 33 boys involved in prostitution. In addition, the author conducted a two-year longitudinal analysis of 12 boys, and interviewed various criminal justice and social service personnel. Main themes of the book include: young males identify their involvement in prostitution from an occupational perspective that down-plays a “deviant self-perception” (the actors define prostitution as part of a “hustle”); young male prostitutes experience conflict with colleagues, customers, and legal and social service agents; and, prostitution occurs within a variety of social relations. The results highlight the adjustments people make to adapt to their occupational lives, and it contributes to our understanding of male prostitution.

Vitaliano, P., James, J. & Boyer, D. (1981). Sexuality of deviant females: Adolescent and adult correlates. Social Work, 26, 468-72.Previous research on women reveals a relationship between childhood sexual trauma, low self-image and future involvement in deviant adult activity. Studies on the antecedents of female prostitution focus on early abuse or economic factors, and they ignore factors of “perceived or forced” loss of self-esteem during adolescence. This research assumes that negative sexual experiences during childhood have an impact on teenage female’s self-image. The authors compared a prostitute group with a group of female offenders (N=269). In-person interviews were conducted with the participants to achieve two goals: 1) characterize the women’s early sexual experiences (positive or negative); 2) test the hypothesis that early sexual experience is related to deviant lifestyles. The data indicate that prostitutes were more likely to have experienced a “negative sexual experience (i.e., forced or coerced sex) in adolescence than female offenders.” Considering the perceived or forced loss of self-esteem among prostitutes, the authors develop a sex-role counseling program at the University of Washington. The program goals include: 1) address factors associated with labeling, 2) differentiate between self-perception as sexual offender and their sexual victim status, 3) “restore and expand women’s concept of successful female roles.”

Wachtel, A. (1986). Some reflections on the Badgley report. In J. Lowman, M. Jackson, T. Palys, & S. Gavigan (Eds.), Regulating sex: An anthology of commentaries on the findings and recommendations of the Badgley and Fraser reports. Burnaby, B.C.: Simon Fraser University.

The author examines the Badgley Report in light of three major themes: 1) The identification of child sexual abuse as a national problem; 2) The Report’s child centred approach; 3) The Committee’s ambivalence about children and sexuality. Problems are cited with the Committee’s methods and figures used to report the incidence of sexual abuse; however, a comparison with other estimates confirms the conclusion that child sexual abuse is a widespread social problem. The author criticizes the Report for medicalizing incest through its genetics discussion – focusing on genetics ignores social objections to incest. The Report’s child centred approach stands as one of its strengths.

Webber, M. (1991).Street kids: The tragedy of Canada’s runaways. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

This book profiles the experiences of “young, homeless and trapped” street kids. The author conducts in-depth interviews with both street people and ex-street people in various Canadian cities. Among other things, the author illustrates the damaging aspects of life on the streets (i.e., young prostitutes who experience pimp and trick violence and youth who have substance abuse problems). Many young people end up on the streets after running away from a physically, sexually and emotionally abusive home life. One chapter on sexually exploited kids suggests that some street youth are forced to prostitute as a means of subsistence. The book also details how homeless and hungry youth experience conflict with a criminal justice system that ignores the living conditions of street youth. At the same time, service providers struggle to help youths entrenched in the street life; however, intervention at this stage often comes too late, and most agencies lack the necessary funding and tools to provide youths with options for leaving the streets. The street youth phenomenon unfolds within conditions of “growing poverty and a shrinking social safety net.”

Weisberg, D. K. (1985).Children of the night: A study of adolescent prostitution. Lexington: Lexington Books.

The construction of prostitution as a social problem is a relatively recent occurrence. Concern with juvenile prostitution emerged in the 1960s at the same time that child abuse became a topical social problem. This book examines a variety of issues associated with adolescent (male and female) prostitution, with specific focus on the origin of the phenomenon, lifestyles associated with prostitution, and young prostitutes’ interaction with criminal justice and social service personnel. The book also examines the correlation between adolescent prostitution and child abuse and runaway behaviour. The basis of this work is, in part, a research project that used multiple methods to develop “in-depth demographic and descriptive” information on youth prostitution. Among other things, the author reveals the following on male and female adolescent prostitutes: average age 16; average age of entry is 14; most have a childhood history of physical and sexual abuse; most have runaway several times; and, they learned about prostitution from their peers. Most youth lack the education and employment skills necessary to subsist, thereby contributing to their decision to prostitute. Homosexual preferences characterize a large proportion of adolescent male prostitutes. The author lists recommendations to assist legal and social service agencies in “helping street people and runaways” (i.e., aggressive outreach services, inter-agency co-operation, the development of strong client relationships, address staff “burnout,” and steps to address the various needs of young prostitutes).

West, D.J. (1992). Male prostitution: Gay sex services in London. London, England: Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd.

This book attempts to “dispel myths and confusions and to describe the male prostitution scene in London, England in more objective terms and with fewer preconceptions than writers on the subject have shown in the past.” The author recorded observations about the male sex trade, with the goal of promoting “realistic social policies.” Interviews were conducted with 87 male sex workers. Sex worker is defined as “one who proffers personal sexual services to a variety of customers chosen primarily for what they are prepared to pay.” Issues discussed throughout the book include violence and the risk of violence for young male prostitutes, the risk of HIV infection, and the antecedents of life as a sex worker.

Widom, C., & Ames, M.S. (1994). Criminal consequences of childhood sexual victimization. Child Abuse and Neglect, 18 (4), 308-318.

Numerous studies have explored the link between childhood sexual abuse and participation in negative activities, i.e., delinquency, running away, promiscuity and inappropriate sexual behavior. This study examines the long-term criminal consequences of childhood sexual abuse. Using a prospective cohort design, the authors examined the official criminal histories of victims of childhood sexual abuse (total N=908). The study included a comparison group of physically abused and neglected cases, and a control group matched on age, race, sex and socio-economic status (“Of the 319 abused and neglected children under school age, there were matches for 229”). The results indicate that in comparison to cases of abuse and neglect, childhood sexual abuse does not increase an individual’s risk for subsequent involvement in delinquent and adult criminal activity. Sexually abused juveniles were at greater risk of being arrested for runaway behaviour. Childhood sexual abuse victims “were more likely to be arrested for prostitution as adults than other abuse and neglect victims and controls, regardless of gender.” The authors examined the number of youth arrested as runaways who also had a record for prostitution as an adult; there was no support for a “direct relationship” between childhood sexual abuse, being arrested as a youth for running away, and being arrested as an adult for prostitution. The results must be approached with caution because the authors relied on official data and the “possible impact of agency intervention.” They encourage future research that examines cases of childhood sexual abuse where negative consequences do not appear.

Widom, C. & Kuhns, J. (1996). Childhood victimization and subsequent risk for promiscuity, prostitution, and teenage pregnancy: A prospective study.American Journal of Public Health, 86, 1607-1612.

This study examines the relationship between childhood sexual abuse and/neglect and subsequent risk for promiscuity, prostitution, and teenage pregnancy. The authors find that early abuse and/or neglect was a strong indicator of involvement in prostitution for females. Further, there was an association between sexual abuse, neglect and female prostitution; however, physical abuse was only peripherally associated with involvement in the sex trade.

Widom, C.S. (May/June 1996). Childhood sexual abuse and criminal consequences. Society, 47-53.

There is considerable research concerning the “cycle of violence” or the negative consequences (i.e., increased violence behaviour) that stem from childhood sexual or physical abuse or neglect. A salient research topic focuses on the relationship between childhood sexual abuse and subsequent involvement in delinquent activity. Unfortunately, many of these studies are methodologically weak (i.e., they rely on retrospective reporting of adults and they do not use adequate comparison groups). The author of this research posed three questions to examine the “possible long-term criminal consequences of childhood sexual abuse:” 1) “Are sexual abuse victims at higher risk criminal behavior later in life?” 2) “Is there a higher risk of committing sex crimes?” 3) “Is there a link between sexual abuse, running away, and prostitution?” The authors examined the case histories of 908 victims of childhood physical or sexual abuse or neglect who were “processed through the courts between 1967 and 1971.” Cases were split into two groups: those with a history of abuse and neglect and a control group with no documented cases of abuse or neglect. The data reveal that childhood abuse and neglect “puts victims at higher risk for criminal behavior.” Victims of sexual abuse were not more likely than other “victims of physical abuse or neglect” to participate in criminal activities. However, with respect to prostitution, the author asserts that childhood sexual abuse victims were more likely to runaway and become involved in prostitution than “other child maltreatment victims and controls.” The link between childhood abuse and neglect and subsequent involvement in criminal behaviour is not inevitable; however, we must be aware of the “particular risk they face.”

* Working roup to Stop Sexual Abuse of Children by Johns and Pimps. (1997). Recommendations for action. SK: Saskatoon Communities for Children.

The Working Group provided several recommendations for responding to the sexual abuse of youth by pimps and johns. Using a continuum of strategies, the Group recommended outreach, safe refuge services, healing and treatment for children, changes to legislation, strategies for deterring johns, and prevention and community awareness. These recommendations stem from the Mayor’s Task Force on Child Prostitution (Action Plan for the Elimination of Child Prostitution in the City of Saskatoon, 1996).

Wurzbacher, K., Evans, E., & Moore, E. (1991). Effects of alternative street school on youth involved in prostitution. Journal of Adolescent Health, 12, 549-554.

In this study, youth prostitutes were self-assigned into a group attending alternative street school, a group unable to attend school, or a group for those who refused to attend school. Participants were administered Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale, Rosenburg Self-Esteem Scale, Quality of Life Scale and self-reported prostitution-related activities. Information was gathered at intake time and 50 days after intake. School attendees exhibited significantly “less depression, improved school sentiment, improved self-esteem, and reduced prostitution activity in less than 2 months of street school.” The authors note that no other noticeable changes in variables were witnessed for either of the remaining two groups, except for self-esteem.