Youth Involvement in Prostitution: A Literature Review and Annotated Bibliography

Appendix A: Annotated Bibliography (continued)

Jackson, L., Highcrest, A., & Coats R.A. (1992). Varied potential risks of HIV infection among prostitutes.Social Science Medicine, 35 (3), 281-286.

Current research indicates that HIV infection among non-drug using prostitutes is “absent or low.” Nevertheless, it is essential to provided HIV-related intervention and prevention programs to prostitutes. A majority of the available HIV-related initiatives and programs cater to street prostitutes, while ignoring a variety of other women involved in the sex trade (researchers have focused on the most visible sector of the sex trade – the street trade). However, the authors argue that participation in prostitution extends beyond the street trade into various off-street locales. The authors categorize prostitutes into three different groups: street prostitutes, escorts, and part-time prostitutes working within the service sector, i.e. those working in bars, massage parlours, etc. Rates of infection may vary “depending on the type of prostitution,” and prevention programs must therefore account for these different HIV-risk situations. The authors conclude that prevention and education programs must be accompanied by attempts to address the social and economic forces that contribute to “high-risk activities among all prostitutes.”

Jackson, L., & Highcrest, A. (1996). Female prostitutes in North America: What are their risks of HIV infection? In L. Sherr, C. Hankins, & L. Bennett (Eds.), AIDS as a Gender Issue Psychological Perspectives. London: Taylor and Francis Publishers.

This article examines the potential risk of HIV-infection among female prostitutes, “within the context of their working and private lives.” The authors describe three styles of prostitution: street prostitutes, escorts, and part-time prostitutes working within the service sector (e.g., bars, massage parlours). A majority of the HIV-related initiatives and programs cater to street prostitutes, while ignoring other women involved in the sex trade. The authors argue that risk of HIV infection varies according to the “type of prostitution and the social organization of sex work.” Research indicates that HIV infection among non-drug using prostitutes is relatively low. It appears that prostitutes are more at risk of HIV infection in their private lives than while they are working (they are at risk of HIV through unprotected sexual contact with their partners, many of whom have additional sexual partners). In this respect, more attention must be given to preventing HIV infection in the context of women sex trade workers’ private lives.

James, J., & Meyerding, J. (1977). Early sexual experience as a factor in prostitution. Archives of Sexual Behaviour, 7, 31-42.

This article compares early sexual experiences of prostitutes and non-prostitutes, with particular focus on traumatic sexual experiences such as incest and rape. Literature on early sexual experiences of non-prostitutes is compared with two studies on “sexual histories of prostitutes” (both studies were conducted by James, 1970-1971 and 1974-1975). Prostitutes were more likely to learn about sex through personal experiences, not through parental education. Prostitutes were more likely to have experienced sexual advances by adults during childhood, and they were more often victims of incest and rape. Further, prostitutes “initiated sexual activity at a younger age,” and failed to keep contact with their first sexual partner following intercourse. The authors suggest that an “abusive sexual self-identity” factors into some women’s decision to prostitute: “It seems possible...that to be used sexually at an early age in a way that produces guilt, shame, and loss of self-esteem on the part of the victim would be likely to lesson one’s resistance to viewing oneself as a saleable commodity.”

Janus, M,, Burgess, A.W., & McCormack, A. (1987). Histories of sexual abuse in adolescent male runawaysAdolescence, 22, 405-417.

This study examines the sexual case histories of 89 Canadian male runaways (15 to 20 years of age). The authors analyze interviews on physical and sexual victimization, family history and socio-economic status, “delinquent and criminal activities,” and factors contributing to the decision to runaway from home. The data reveal that male runaways experienced a higher incidence of sexual and physical abuse than “randomly sampled populations.” As confirmed in the runaway literature, sexually abused and non-sexually abused runaways share several characteristics: family difficulties, high levels of delinquency, depression, tension, low self-image, and a history of physical abuse. The reaction of sexually abused male runaways to their “runaway event” is characterized by “highly avoidant patterns coupled with extreme withdrawal from all types of interpersonal relationships,” a behaviour commonly exhibited by victims of sexual abuse. The authors recommend treatment initiatives for shelters that deal with sexually abused runaways, and they offer suggestions for further research (e.g., examine the frequency of childhood sexual abuse, the relationship between victim and offender and the differences between sexually abused males who ran away and those who did not).

Jarvinen, M. (1993). Of vice and women: Shades of prostitution. Universitietsforlaget.

Before the early 1980s, prostitution was not considered an issue of great concern for authorities in Helsinki, Finland. “In 1984, the Ministry of Health and Social Affairs published a short report on prostitution where the conclusion was reached that commercialized sex did not constitute a widespread social problem.” (The Vagrancy Act was subsequently repealed in cases where prostitution was deemed ‘small-scale’ and non-problematic. The author suggests the repeal has had little impact on the prevalence of the sex trade.) However, in this book the author uncovers two periods in Finnish history when issues associated with prostitution were treated seriously: the beginning of the 1900s, and in the 1950s and 1960s issues associated with youth prostitution commanded attention. Relying on official (police) data, Jarvinen illustrates how prostitution is a socially constructed phenomenon. “Commercialized sex is a direct reflection of the gender structure in our society. The transactions between the prostitute and their customers do not qualitatively deviate from ‘normal’ and accepted heterosexual relations.” The author argues that prostitution laws historically served to control prostitutes in specific and women in general.

Jesson, J. (1993). Understanding adolescent female prostitution: A literature review. British Journal of Social Work 23, 517-530.

Social workers are spending an increasing amount of time with youth who have been sexually abused and youth involved in prostitution. As a result, childcare workers need to understand relevant dynamics to offer advice on safe sex and personal protection. The author of this report conducts a literature review on adolescent prostitution for a social service department. A variety of explanations for youth involvement in prostitution are discussed, ranging from pathological and psychological factors to discussions of broader social aspects. The author concludes there is a relative scarcity of British research on adolescent prostitution, and no research focusing on youth in care and prostitution. More research is needed to inform social service practitioners in the development of policies and strategies for responding to adolescent prostitution.

Jiwani, Y., & Brown, S. (1999). Trafficking and sexual exploitation of girls and young women: A review of select literature and initiatives. Feminist Research, Education, Development and Action Centre (FREDA).

Various international efforts by non-governmental organizations and lobby groups have increased awareness of the sexual exploitation of young women. This report examines the issue of sexual exploitation of young women and girls within an international context. The authors outline factors that contribute to the vulnerability of women and girls to sexual exploitation and abuse, including poverty, violence, and the devaluation of women and girls. As the authors note, the World Congress Against Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children identified the following factors contributing to sexual exploitation: “economic disparities, inequitable socio-economic structures, dysfunctioning families, lack of education, growing consumerism, urban-rural migration, gender discrimination, irresponsible male sexual behavior, harmful traditional practices, armed conflicts and trafficking of children.” The Canadian literature highlights three categories of women and girls who are vulnerable to trafficking and child sexual exploitation: trafficking within the international sex trade; the exploitation of migrant workers; and the importation of “girls and women as mail order brides.” The authors argue it is important to provide those who want to exit prostitution with the necessary support and services. Many youth who are sexually exploited and trafficked are runaways or “throwaways who turn to street prostitution as a way of survival.” Many street youth have few employment, educational and residential prospects; therefore, prostitution becomes a means of subsistence. Suggestions for further research include studies of effective youth employment strategies, assessments of gender-specific and non-judgmental services, and the implementation of “anti-violence, anti-sexist and anti-racist programs in schools.”

Johnson, T. (1996). Self-reported risk factors for AIDS among homeless youth. AIDS Education Prevention, 8, 308-322.

This study examines HIV risk behaviours in homeless youth in Chicago. 196 interviews with homeless youth were conducted in 10 shelters and 5 street locations to gather self-reported behaviours on factors associated with HIV risk activities. 87% of the respondents acknowledged at least one of the following risk factors: “multiple sex partners; high-risk partners; inconsistent condom use; history of sexually transmitted disease; anal sex; prostitution; and/or intravenous drug use.” Participation in these high-risk activities was associated with “being male, having unmet personal needs, being interviewed in street locations, and having a history of sexual abuse.” The authors suggest several initiatives to reduce participation in HIV risk activities: reduce the need for youth to participate in “illicit activities” for income; take steps to provide basic needs; educate youth about existing services; and, provide programs to reduce and prevent childhood sexual abuse.

Joseph, C. (1995). Scarlet wounding: Issues of child prostitution. Journal of Psychohistory, 23 2-17.

The author wants to raise awareness of child prostitution by discussing her personal involvement in the trade, relevant issues associated with child prostitution, and historical information. In addition to documenting her experience in the “club scene” (establishments that use children as prostitutes), the author reviews the incidence of child prostitution, sex tourism, child pornography, and “sex rings and cults.” The history of child prostitution, from Babylonian prostitution to Victorian times is also discussed. The author concludes that child prostitution is a “deeply troubling human problem” that must be addressed through “compassion and protection” for children.