Youth Involvement in Prostitution: A Literature Review and Annotated Bibliography

Appendix A: Annotated Bibliography (continued)

Kanouse, D., Berry, S., Duan, N., Lever, J., Carson, S., Perlman, J., & Levitan, B. (1999). Drawing a probability sample of female street prostitutes in Los Angeles county. The Journal of Sex Research, 36 (1) 45-51.

Previous research on street prostitution provides inaccurate data concerning the size of this population. The illicit nature of street prostitution and the transient nature of the population make it difficult to obtain accurate research samples. This article describes the “methods that were used to construct the sampling frame and to sample and conduct field interviews with street prostitutes.” In addition, the article provides information on behaviors that increase a sex worker’s likelihood of contracting a sexually transmitted disease (e.g., sexual activity, drug injection and sexual relations with men who inject drugs). A two-stage sampling approach was used to sample locations and time slots, then to sample eligible people at identified locations and times. For 36 weeks, field teams randomly selected women on the street in predefined areas, according to a sampling unit (area-day-shift). Eligible subjects were interviewed and asked to provide a blood sample. A total of 998 street prostitutes were recruited and interviewed. Eighty-five percent agreed to provide blood samples (results of the blood samples were not discussed in this paper). Among the results: only 2% of the women interviewed were less than 18 years old (however, the authors suggest some may not have wanted to admit being underage); more than 80% of the respondents were minority (mainly Black or Hispanic). Limitations of the study include an unrepresentative target population (many women claimed no involvement in the sex trade), and to ensure the security of the researchers, the interview teams did not enter certain area-day-shifts that were considered too dangerous. Overall, the authors suggest that a “spatial-temporal sampling frame can be constructed and field sampling techniques used to draw a probability sample of female street prostitutes.”

Kruks, G. (1991). Gay and lesbian homeless/street youth: Special issues and concerns Journal of Adolescent Health, 12, 515-518.

Focusing on the experiences of gay-lesbian and bisexual-identified youth, this study discusses homeless and runaway youth by examining information collected through a “consortium of agencies.” The data reveal that gay and bisexual youth appear to be disproportionally vulnerable to homelessness and suicide. Gay male street youth may have run away from home due to anti-homosexual sentiments in their family setting, and in comparison to heterosexual homeless males, they are more likely to be involved in prostitution as a means of subsistence. One sample revealed that 53% of gay-identified street youth had attempted suicide, while 32% of a group of gay and non-gay street youth reported suicide attempts. The author concludes that factors of prejudice, discrimination, and homophobia contribute to a matrix of problems experienced by the “young person who is gay.”

Lau, E. (1989). Runaway: Diary of a street kid. Toronto: Harper and Collins.

The author chronicles her experiences as a runaway living on the streets of Vancouver, B.C., developed through her diary entries, both while she was at home and during the first two years after she ran away. The book documents the conflict and pains the author experienced at home (i.e., an over-controlling family environment), and her subsequent decision to runaway to the streets. Once on the streets, the author describes the process of becoming involved in prostitution and her progressive use of substances to emotionally escape her life circumstances. The book also shares the struggle to leave/exit the streets and the difficulty attempting to re-integrate into mainstream society.

LeBlanc, S.L (1997). Consistent and persistent: A necessary approach to children involved in prostitution.

In Prince George, British Columbia, there are approximately 45 youth involved in prostitution, and a further “100 to 200 children who are at risk of becoming involved with the street.” In response to concerns about youth involvement in the sex trade, the Community Planning council instructed the author of this report to identify solutions to address the sexual exploitation of youth. The report focuses on three issues: 1) review the problem of youth prostitution in Prince George; 2) overview reports produced by the Ministry of the Attorney General of British Columbia, the province of Alberta, and a Vancouver service agency; 3) review information gathered from service providers in Prince George. The author notes that youth involvement in prostitution is “serious and should be treated as a form of child abuse.” In addition, the report indicates that more needs to be done to arrest customers and pimps of young prostitutes, and that better social, education, housing and health services are needed to help prevent the sexual exploitation of youth. Service providers advocated a multi-pronged approach to combat the youth sex trade (e.g., greater enforcement of s.212(4), more social services, and proactive education/ prevention initiatives).

Lee, M. &O’Brien, R. (1995). The game’s up: Redefining child prostitution. London: The Children’s Society.

This report examines inappropriate and appropriate responses to the sexual exploitation of children and youth in England and Wales. The authors attempt to raise awareness of this phenomenon, and they encourage further analysis of the factors that contribute to youth involvement in prostitution.

Lines, L. (1998). Toronto roundtable on prostitution involving children and youth: Recommendation for action to end commercialised child sex abuse. Mimeo.

On February 11, 1997, the “Toronto Board of Health requested that the Medical Officer of Health, in consultation with the Metropolitan Toronto Police Juvenile Squad, other appropriate social service agencies and the Toronto Board of Education, report on the prevention of prostitution involving children and youth, and the existing situation.” Several key stakeholders were assembled through three, three-hour roundtable discussions to “assess the current situation in regard to children and youth involved in prostitution and suggest appropriate advocacy initiatives.” The participants discussed the following issues: legal definitions and regulatory approaches; provincial policy and practice; interventions and outcomes; prevention – home, school and community. Recommendations included: youth prostitution be defined as “commercialised child sex abuse;” young prostitutes be treated a victims of sexual abuse; the province increase its prevention funding; and a media awareness campaign to “raise community awareness regarding commercialised sex abuse.” The report includes a protocol regarding the provision of services to homeless and runaway youth under the age of 16. The author suggests there are a myriad of reasons why some youth runaway or are thrown-away from home. “The history of most street youth seen today tends to indicate family discord, neglect and/or abuse as significant contributions” to runaway behaviour. “Many researchers cite a correlation between sexual abuse and running away, particularly among youth engaged in prostitution, while disclosure to parents of a lesbian or gay youth identity has been found to place a young person at high risk for rejection and abuse by family members.” Categories of street youth (e.g. absconders from Children’s Aid Society care or custody under the young offenders act, Aboriginal youth and lesbian, gay and bisexual youth) and characteristics of street youth (e.g. lack of education and employment skills, and a history of transience) are also discussed. The report is a tool for agencies, institutions, and governments responsible for addressing the “commercialised sexual abuse of children and youth.”

Longres, J. (1991). An ecological study of adjudicated female teenage prostitutes. Journal of Social Service Research, 14, 113-127.

This paper describes family history information from the perspective of parents of young prostitutes, and it recommends family-oriented services. The author uses an ecological perspective that identifies conflict between parents and their “social and physical environment” as an analytical tool. A survey of structured questions is administered to 33 parents of “adjudicated teenage prostitutes.” The data suggest that parents exhibit stress that is linked to a “history of failed intimate relationships and economic marginality.” Further, girls grew up in neighborhoods that provided a relatively easy transition into a prostitution career. The author recommends services to “rehabilitate families and prevent further involvement in prostitution.”

Longres, J. (1987). The use of survey methods in research parents of adjudicated teenage prostitutes.Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 14, 65-86.

Most research on family dynamics as a factor in the drift into juvenile prostitution has used interviews with prostitutes to collect information. This research has two goals: study the parents of adolescent prostitutes, and describe the challenges in using survey methods with a “difficult and hard to reach population.” The authors attempted to interview families of 75 young women who completed a project for female prostitutes at a major urban juvenile court (33 families agreed to participate). It was difficult to contact the respondents due to the often-estranged relationship between the parents and the youth. Guidelines based on “clinical experiences with resistant families” were developed to maximize participation in the study (e.g., persist in contacting the parents before the interview, ensure confidentiality, reassure the parents know the research is for knowledge purposes). The process indicates that survey methods administered with certain precautions is a valuable tool for gathering data from parents of teenage prostitutes. A 68% return rate was observed when data collection guidelines recommended by service outreach workers were followed. It appears that “a significant percentage” of parents of young prostitutes are willing to participate in family-focused services to help their children.

Lowman, J. (2000). Victims and the Outlaw Status of (Street) Prostitution in Canada. Violence against women: An international and interdisciplinary journal, 6 (9).

Data from the Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics reveal that 86 prostitutes were murdered in Canada from 1992 through 1998. In this article, Lowman “constructs a profile of murders of sex workers in British Columbia from 1964 to 1998.” The author argues that media accounts of the “get rid of prostitutes” activities that were initiated by politicians, police and residents’ groups during the 1980s contributed to a “sharp increase in the murders of prostitutes after 1980.” In addition to profiling murders of prostitutes in British Columbia (e.g. 32 murders from 1992 to 1998, that the clearance rate for cases involving murders of prostitutes is 34%, compared to a clearance rate for non-prostitutes that ranges from 77% to 85%), the author describes how campaigns to remove street prostitution from certain areas of the city contributed to a “social milieu in which violence against prostitutes could flourish.” During the mid-1980’s, several politicians and community groups in Vancouver campaigned to have street prostitution removed from certain areas of the city, with no regard for where it would relocate. As a result, many prostitutes were forced to ply their trade in more dangerous and secluded areas of the city (which is compounded by a system of quasicriminalization in the CriminalCode). Lowman argues that there are two forms of violence against prostitutes: situational (violence that occurs during the “course of a transaction”) and predatory (premeditated violence). However, this violence must be understood as part of a “continuum of violence against women more generally.” The author concludes that the “prohibition and stigmatization of prostitution are the main obstacles to creating safer working conditions for prostitutes,” and that politicians must decide where prostitutes and their clients can conduct their business. The need for preventing youth from entering the sex trade and the importance of addressing the socio-structural conditions that makes prostitution a choice for some women (e.g. the mistreatment of Aboriginal peoples, the feminization of poverty, youth sexual exploitation and addiction) are also discussed.