Youth Involvement in Prostitution: A Literature Review and Annotated Bibliography
Appendix A: Annotated Bibliography (continued)
Raffaelli, M., Campos, R., Merrit, A.P., Siqueira, E., Antunes, C.N., Parker, R., Greco, M., Greco, D., Halsey, N., & the Street Youth Group (1993). Sexual practices and attitudes of street youth in Belo Horizonte, Brazil. Social Science and Medicine, 37, 661-670.
There is worldwide concern with street youth and children being exposure to HIV. Information on the “meanings and functions” of sexual activity of street youth is necessary to develop effective HIV-related prevention and harm reduction strategies. This study uses multiple methods and sources (questionnaires, focus group discussions, in-depth interviews and field observations) to examine the sexual culture of street youth (9 to 18 years of age) in a large Brazilian city. The data indicate that these youth are involved in high-risk sexual activities that expose them to HIV/AIDS, and other sexually transmitted diseases. The respondents live in a world where sex serves numerous needs (e.g., for survival, pleasure, dominance). The authors depict sex as a “multi-determined and entrenched behaviour”
within this group of youths. Intervention programs for street youth must address issues associated with survival sex, sex for comfort, sex for pleasure, and
various psychological problems experienced during adolescence.
Raychaba, B. (1988). To be on our own with no direction from fome: A report on the special needs of youth leaving the care of the child welfare system. National Youth in Care Network.
The National Youth in Care Network is an advocacy group for youths (aged 14 to 24) who are or have been part of the child welfare system. This book discusses youth experiences during their transition from systemic dependence to independent living. This study stems from exploratory research conducted in 1987 for the Ontario Social Assistance Review Committee (S.A.R.C.). This follow-up study reviews the extant literature and completes a survey with Ontario child welfare agencies. The author finds that many youth experience emotional and substance abuse difficulties during the transition from the child welfare system to independent living. In addition, many youth who leave the child welfare system with few employment-related skills are vulnerable to becoming involved in prostitution. Government and child welfare authorities are encouraged to develop strategies to help youth in care graduate into successful adulthood.
Recommendations of the Prostitution Policy, Service and Research Committee for the Calgary Community. (1996). Handbook for Action Against Prostitution of Youth in Calgary.
Prostitution continues to thrive in Calgary, despite many attempts to control and suppress its various manifestations. In 1994, the Calgary Police Commission approached a group of Calgary stakeholders to investigate problems associated with child and youth prostitution, and to provide recommendations for developing a coordinated effort to combat the youth sex trade. The Committee’s mandate included a review of policy and procedures, protocols, research and information distribution, public education and program needs. Among the Committee’s recommendations: treat prostitutes under the age of 18 as victims of child sexual abuse, amend the Child Welfare Act of Alberta to include prostitution-related activities, develop prevention and education programs to keep youth from entering prostitution, identify youth-at-risk, provide support and service to family and youth after divulging youth involvement in prostitution, develop a secure environment for youth prostitutes who testify in court, and enhance crisis intervention and social services for youth exiting prostitution.
* Regina Aboriginal Human Services Co-operative (1996). Children Off the Street Initiative Research Project (COTS), Regina: author.
This research examines responses to street involved youth in North Central Regina, including recommendations based upon interviews with community members and professionals, and a review of research and services in other jurisdictions. The report focuses on Aboriginal youth involved in prostitution, and suggests there is a conflict between “the current mandate of Saskatchewan’s Child and Family Services Act and the concept of a children’s shelter.”
Among the recommendations: more services; education to prevent youth involvement in prostitution; research of the conditions that lead to youth running away to the streets; involve youth in decision-making processes; and introduce a holistic approach to “healing the child.”
Safer City Task Force (1993). Final Report, Vancouver, B.C.: City Clerk’s Office.
This report examines a variety of issues related to urban design and safety, domestic violence and university campus violence in Vancouver, B.C. Among other things, the document focuses on violent crimes, gangs, drugs, traffic safety, social and economic issues, and prostitution. With respect to prostitution, the Task Force rejects the assumption that “prostitution will always exist.” The committee asserts that initiatives to address “root causes” of prostitution (e.g., domestic violence and sexual abuse), coupled with “interim steps” that provide alternatives to prostitutes will help eliminate the sex trade. The report argues that pimps and customers should be held accountable for the sexual procurement of youth. The Task Force urges the government to amend legislation against customers of youth “so that it is the customer’s responsibility to determine that the prostitute is not a juvenile.”
Among the recommendations:
counseling services for prostitutes; legal aid services for prostitutes; substance abuse education and prevention; review by-laws regulating escort agencies; request the Vancouver Police Department enforce legislation against customers of prostitutes; amend s.212(4) to make it enforceable; and, encourage the public and government to develop the “political will to eradicate prostitution.”
Save the Children – Canada (2000). Sacred lives: Canadian Aboriginal children and youth speak out about sexual exploitation. National Aboriginal Consultation Project. Canada: author.
The authors report findings from consultations with more than 150 commercially sexually exploited Aboriginal children and youth across Canada. The purpose of the report is to “more fully understand the commercial sexual exploitation of Aboriginal children and youth in Canada.”
In particular, the authors wanted to provide youth the opportunity to “express their ideas and concerns regarding the issue of abuse, exploitation, prevention, healing, exiting, crisis intervention, harm reduction, public attitudes and youth participation.”
The overrepresentation of aboriginal youth in the sexual exploitation trade is a matter of serious concern; “the negative impact of European colonialism on Native peoples and their cultures has been a decisive factor in creating and maintaining barriers of social, economic and political inequality.”
“All of the Aboriginal youth who were consulted during the focus groups
spoke of the physical, sexual and/or emotional abuse they experienced in their home lives, as parents, relatives, care givers, and neighbours continued to suffer from the legacy of cultural fragmentation.”
The authors note that the youth shared stories of marginalization and vulnerability “due to both past and present circumstances.”
With no place to live, and with few educational and job skills/opportunities, many Aboriginal youth became involved in sexual exploitation as a means of subsistence. Once on the streets, Aboriginal youth involved in the sex trade are exposed to various forms of danger (e.g., violence and drugs). “The major factors that lead to the deaths of Aboriginal children and youth who are sexually exploited through prostitution are murder, AIDS, suicide, and overdoses.”
The report outlines the need for prevention, crisis intervention/harm reduction, exiting and healing and public attitudes/advocacy. The authors conclude that youth
involvement is key to advocating and implementing positive social change. “By viewing Aboriginal youth involvement in the sex trade within a larger social context, and by acknowledging our collective social responsibility for the life circumstances of these young people, we can begin to offer solutions based on progressive economic and social policy rather than in repression by the law.”
Sansfaçon, D. (1984). Prostitution in Canada: A research review report, working paper #sec10. Ottawa: Department of Justice Canada.
To assist the Special Committee on Pornography and Prostitution (the Fraser Report, 1985) with its mandate, the Department of Justice Canada commissioned a series of research studies. The studies were categorized into three groups 1) research conducted throughout Canada (5 regional studies) that examined the business of prostitution and its control. 2) A national population study that gathered opinions towards prostitution. 3) Comparative studies that examined approaches to prostitution in Europe, the United States, Asia, Arabia and in South America. This report provides an overview of “what was learned about prostitution in the course of this research.”
The report also reviews data collected for the Committee on Sexual Offences Against Children and Youth (the Badgley Report, 1984). In addition to reviewing the “state of knowledge at the time the studies were undertaken,”
the report examines prohibitionist, regulatory and abolitionist approaches to
prostitution, and reviews the history of prostitution-related legislation in Canada. Further, the report outlines the findings produced by the 5 regional studies, including a review of prostitution practices, the control of prostitution, and the perceptions of prostitution and its effects, and options for their control. Among other things, the author finds that there is not “a form of prostitution and not a typical male or female prostitutes.”
The reports differ on whether prostitutes experienced more physical and sexual abuse while growing-up than did non-prostitutes. There was some consensus that prostitutes lacked “formal schooling” and they had “little job experience.” Many prostitutes entered the sex trade between the ages of 16 - 20, and once involved in prostitution they experienced various forms of violence. “Women in particular are often victims of sexual assault on the part of their customers, and physical
violence from their pimps, other prostitutes, or customers.”
Typically, clients were married men between 30 and 50 years of age who were from “any walk of life.”
Sas, L., & Hurley, P. (1997). Project “Guardian”: The sexual exploitation of male youth in London. Ontario: Ministry of Community Services.
In the fall of 1993, police in London, Ontario discovered 40 videotapes in the Ausable River. The tapes contained “explicit sexual acts involving young boys, teenage males and adult men.”
The ensuing police investigation uncovered a large problem of the sexual exploitation of male youth in the London region (the original investigation focused on acts of pornography, however police officials determined that the “common thread to the cases was the exchange of sex for consideration, usually money”
). The police uncovered a “multi victim/multi offender case of sexual exploitation which implicated numerous male children and adult males.”
Dubbed Project Guardian, resources were committed to investigate and prosecute cases of sexual exploitation of young males, and research was launched to better understand the sexual exploitation of young males in London (service practitioners wanted to “learn from this experience so as to be more effective and aware in the future”
). The research goals included exploring the method used to recruit young males into sexual exploitation networks, learn the demographic characteristics of the youth involved, and understand the impact of sexual exploitation on the victims. Researchers sampled 62 of the 84 “complainants on whose behalf criminal charges were laid as a result”
of the police investigation, and they examined multiple data sources (e.g., police information, court files). Among other things, the data reveal that most of the victims were at risk of sexual victimization due to their histories of “chronic neglect, familial dysfunction and in some case early abuse;”
most youth were recruited peers who were already being sexually exploited; the incidence of sexual exploitation was very clandestine; and, the victimization negatively impacted upon the victims. The report recommends changes in legislation to protect children neglected by parents, raise the age of consent from 14 to 16 years of age, training and education programs for professionals, prevention programs, and a national strategy to combat child sexual abuse.
Schaffer, B., & DeBlassie, R. (1984). Adolescent Prostitution. Adolescence, 19, 689-696.
Since 1970, there has been an alarming increase in the number of juveniles involved in prostitution. A Newsweek (1978) article reported an increase from 24% to 74% in the number of prostitutes under the age of 25 arrested in New York in the previous 10 years. The average age of prostitutes in Boston is 20 years old, and it is 18 in Miami. This article explores the conditions preceding teenagers’ involvement in prostitution, and it discusses institutional and legal responses to juvenile prostitution.
Schissel, B., & Fedec, K. (1999). The selling of innocence: The gestalt of danger in the lives of youth prostitutes. Canadian Journal of Criminology.
The negative impact of youth involvement in prostitution on an individual’s “physical, emotional and social well-being”
is a frequently overlooked research topic. The authors of this study explore the “culture of violence” experienced by youth prostitutes. Data are gathered from youth probation files on young offenders in both Regina and Saskatoon (a total of 401 cases, 52 of whom have been involved in prostitution – 7 males and 45 females, and 38 of the 52 youth prostitutes are aboriginal). The authors find that family-based childhood physical and sexual abuse (and severe sexual abuse in particular) is associated with “greater involvement in prostitution.” In addition, the authors examine the “psychic trauma” associated with youth involvement in prostitution. Several self-imposed/indirect victimization variables are identified, which include high-risk substance abuse, suicidal tendencies and poor health. Examples of
direct victimization include unprotected sex with customers, and physical assault (especially against aboriginal youth prostitutes) and sexual assault. The authors note: “prostitution creates a context in which those youth who are involved will run a high risk of being damaged by a predator or by themselves – either directly through assault and self-injury or indirectly through high-risk behaviour.”
The authors advocate a “non-legalistic, non-condemnatory intervention strategy”
to prevent the victimization of children and youth involved in prostitution.
Schmolka, V. (1992). Is Bill C-15 working? An overview of the research on the effects of the 1988 child sexual abuse amendments. Ottawa: Department of Justice Canada.
In response to the Committee on Sexual Offences Against Children and Youth (the Badgley Report, 1984), the federal government introduced Bill C-15, An Act to Amend the Criminal Code and the Canada Evidence Act to confront child sexual abuse. Following the enactment of Bill C-15, the federal government commissioned a series of studies to provide an evaluation of the legislation, and offer insights into how the legal and social service system responds to child sexual abuse. Among other things, the author of this study finds that legislation prohibiting purchasing the sexual services of a youth or living off the avails of a prostitute under the age of 18 has not impacted on juvenile prostitution. In general, many of the provisions in Bill C-15 have been implemented, while others have not been fully introduced. The author concludes by arguing that the law is not a panacea for child sexual abuse.
Schroeder, E. (1993). Adolescent women at-risk: Group therapy for increasing self-esteem. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Washington, Seattle.
The purpose of this study is to develop and evaluate “a counseling intervention process” for young female prostitutes, and for other street involved women. The author used data from participant observation, interviews, and “agency based counseling” sessions with female adolescent prostitutes and other street youth. The study tried to establish “positive female relationships among participants.”
The treatment goals included: enhanced self-esteem and interpersonal problem-solving skills, and raised awareness of issues associated with women’s health. 24 female adolescents (ages 14-18) were assigned to one of three counseling groups that focused on increasing self-esteem through cognitive-behavioural initiatives, social and problem-solving skills, relaxation and guided imagery techniques, “body work,” and sexuality and women’s health awareness. The study used a pre-posttest design where subjects were evaluated on
problem-solving skills, knowledge of women’s health issues, and self-esteem both before and after they participated in 3 counseling sessions that took place over a three-day period. The data reveal significant increases in all measures from pre- to posttest. The author notes that data from treatment logs and participant evaluations suggest that sessions pertaining to “sexuality and personal appearance” were especially popular. Intervention techniques tested during this research may have had a “significant impact” on participants who experienced “dangerous, critical incidents on the street prior to the intervention”
process. Treatment goals were met in counseling interventions, and they might be effective with other “at-risk female populations.”
Scrambler, G., & Scrambler, A. (Eds.). (1997). Rethinking prostitution: Purchasing sex in the 1990s. London, UK: Routledge.
This edited text includes 8 articles that examine various issues associated with contemporary prostitution in Britain. Maggie O’Neill and Peter Davis examine the social organization of male and female prostitutes. Susan Edwards contextualizes prostitution in Britain within “supra-national legal frameworks.” Niki Adams and Nina Lopez argue for reforming British prostitution laws from the perspective of the English Collective of Prostitutes. Graham Scrambler discusses neglected attributes of prostitutes’ backgrounds. Jean Faugier and Mary Sargent examine the men involved in the sex trade (client, boyfriends and pimps). Helen Ward and Sophie day discuss the health care needs of prostitutes. Martin Plant explores substance use and prostitution. The afterward examines arguments for and against legalizing and decriminalizing prostitution.
Seabold, J. (1978). Indicators of child sbuse in males.Social Casework 68, 75-80.
The incidence of child and adolescent sexual abuse has become a growing concern for professionals who deal with the phenomenon. National estimates suggest that 46,000 to 96,000 children are sexually abused every year in the U.S. On average, only 7,600 sexual abuse cases are reported to authorities. Professionals who deal with children need to be aware of indicators of child sexual abuse This paper reviews information provided by therapists concerning the indicators of child and adolescent sexual abuse, which include: “homophobic concerns; aggressive and controlling behaviour; infantile behaviour; paranoid and phobic behaviours; sexually provocative language and behaviour; body images and changes; family and social indicators; a pattern of setting fires; and dreams involving themes of punishment, isolation, or pursuit.”
The author discusses the relationship between running away from abuse and male prostitution, and the pattern of males remaining in abusive
environments because they are socialized to be loyal and they have few alternatives (e.g., no available service agencies).
Secure Care Working Group (1998). Report of the Secure Care Working Group. B.C.: Minister of Children and Families.
In 1998, in response to public concerns about youth at risk of harms, the British Columbia Minister of Children and Families launched a working group to help decide whether the provincial government should “develop options for secure treatment of high-risk children and youth.”
The working group held focus groups with youths, parents and service provider, and they visited youth custody centres and held discussions with government officials and social service professionals. The working group reported that some children and youth in British Columbia are at great risk of harm (through alcohol and substance abuse and sexual exploitation), which produce several problems, i.e., psychological/emotional difficulties, violence, sexually transmitted disease and health problems. The working group noted that intervening in the lives of children and youth involves a difficult balance between “positive and negative effects.”
Nevertheless, the state must develop
ways to protect children and youth from abuse. The working group reported that parents and service providers expressed frustration with the inability to intervene in the lives of youths, compounded by a lack of services and education programs. The group advocated a safe care strategy that would allow officials to detain youth and make assessments, provide services and develop plans of care (a strategy with safeguards to prevent harm). The group argued it is inappropriate for children and youth “who are being sexually exploited and who want to get out of the situation they are in”
to be subjected to secure care; however, they should be able to volunteer to use specialized safe care.
Sedyaningsih,M., & Edang, R. (1999). Female commercial sex workers in Kramat Tunggak, Jakarta, Indonesia. Social Science and Medicine, 49, 1101-1114.
This article presents a study of a brothel community in Jakarta, Indonesia. The goal was to examine the determinants of female commercial sex workers’ STD/AIDS-related behavior. Thirty sex workers, 12 brothel managers, 5 vocational teachers, 6 officers and 46 clients were interviewed, given a questionnaire, and/or participated in a focus group. Policy in Indonesia prohibits girls under the age of 18 years from working in the brothels; however, managers did not follow this regulation if the girl appeared to be older. The majority of women indicated that their entry into the sex trade was “forced by the circumstances” – such as financial difficulties and lack of employment opportunities. Many have a poor understanding of the ways that AIDS and other STDs are transmitted; however, younger sex workers used condoms more consistently than did the older ones. The researchers suggest that educational programs should be conducted in small groups to build sex workers’ confidence and increase their knowledge of the benefits of condom use. Special sessions should be provided for caretakers and brothel managers, accompanied by a policy on condom use throughout brothels.
Seng, M., (1989). Child sexual abuse and adolescent prostitution: A comparative analysis. Adolescence, 24, 665-675.
Various studies have discussed the possible relationship between child sexual abuse and female adolescent prostitution. This study explores that relationship through self-report and referral documents/observations collected at a temporary youth shelter in Chicago, U.S. Using 22 comparison variables, 70 non-prostitutes who were sexually abused as children were compared to 35 prostitutes who were not sexually abused during childhood. The data indicate that running away is a more salient factor for becoming involved in prostitution than childhood sexual abuse. The author outlines treatment initiatives for both sexually abused children and children involved in prostitution.
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