Youth Involvement in Prostitution: A Literature Review and Annotated Bibliography

Appendix A: Annotated Bibliography (continued)

McKeganey, N.P., & Barnard, M. (1996). Sex Work on the Streets: Prostitutes and their Clients. Buckingham, England: Open University Press.

The authors used 3 years of interview data with prostitutes and their clients to examine the practice of prostitution in Glasgow, Scotland. The data suggest that prostitution is correlated with drug use, and that women working in the sex trade constantly fear violence and arrest (violence against prostitutes is commonplace). The authors report “low and varied” levels of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) among prostitutes, contrary to popular belief that prostitutes represent a threat to public health. Prostitutes differentiate between “paid and private sexual encounters as a way of managing their personal identity.” Information about clients who purchase sex from prostitutes includes: the ability to obtain special sexual acts; excitement over a clandestine relationship; and, a desire to keep the “transactional nature of the interaction” secret. Attitudes that prostitutes transgress prescribed gender roles are observed in the criminal justice system and are used to explain violence against prostitutes. The authors briefly outline public policy implications (e.g., changes to the legal status of prostitution will only be realized if accompanied by societal attitudes towards sex in general and prostitution in specific). “That change in attitude will only come about once we see the individuals involved in the world of prostitution as people rather than as the subjects of tabloid headlines and armchair moralizing.”

McLaren, J. (1986). Chasing the social evil: Moral fervour and the evolution of Canada’s prostitution laws, 1867-1917.Canadian Journal of Law and Society, 1, 125-165.

Social and legal historians frequently discuss the relationship between criminal law and morality. John McLaren examines how various moral concerns influenced the enactment and enforcement of Canadian prostitution-related legislation between 1867 and 1917. The paper illustrates how British reformers influenced the creation of early prostitution laws in Canada. Concerns over-seas about the association between prostitution and venereal disease, and fears about child prostitution as a form of “white slavery” impacted upon reform efforts in Canada. Various interest groups, ranging from women’s groups to religious organizations, encouraged government to enact laws to protect women and children from the evils of prostitution. However, legislators and reformers ignored the economic and social conditions “which led women and girls into prostitution,” laws enacted to stop the sexual exploitation of prostitutes failed to decrease the incidence of prostitution, and the law was frequently used to harass and victimize prostitutes themselves. McLaren concludes by warning contemporary legislators of the “dangers of excessive moral fervour,” and pitfalls with treating the law as a panacea for this complex social problem.

Michaud, M. (1988). Dead end: Homeless teenagers, a multi-service approach. Calgary: Detselig Enterprises.

Canadian society has witnessed an increasing number of homeless youth. With few options for survival, many of these youth quickly turn to deviant and illegal behaviour as a source of income. This book integrates the perspective of various disciplines to contextualize problems associated with youth homelessness, and to explore methods for helping youth exit the streets. Two chapters examine the relationship between childhood sexual and physical abuse, the decision to run away from home, and subsequent involvement in prostitution. The author advances a multi-service approach, co-ordinated by all levels of government, that stresses prevention, crisis intervention, and enhanced exit services for homeless youth.

Michaud, M. (1988). Teenagers who prostitutes. In M. Michaud, Dead End: Homeless Teenagers, A Multi-Service Approach. Calgary: Detselig Enterprises.

An important aspect of the youth homelessness phenomenon is involvement in prostitution. This article relies on the perspectives of youth to provide an understanding of factors associated with youth prostitution, including background characteristics, the impact of sexual abuse, emotional and physical health issues, and contact with the criminal justice system. In-person interviews were conducted with 42 prostitutes under the age of nineteen. The findings indicate that many youth ran away from a sexually abusive and chaotic home environment they described as intolerable. Once on the streets, youth reported becoming involved in prostitution for economic reasons, and prolonged involvement in the lifestyle made it increasingly difficult to exit the sex trade. The author advocates an immediate and widespread response to prevent further involvement of youth in prostitution.

Miller, J., & Schwartz, M.D. (1995). Rape myths and violence against street prostitutes. Deviant Behavior, 16 (1), 1-23.

This study used in-depth interviews with 16 street prostitutes in a county jail (mid-western U.S. city) to examine the “experience and meaning” of violence against prostitutes. The respondents indicated a significant amount of rape and violence. The authors suggest that stereotypical rape myths “come together uniquely in the case of prostitutes to fuel both the violence and devaluation that allows society to ignore such treatment.” Several myths emerge from the interviews: that prostitutes are unrapable; prostitutes are not harmed when they are raped; prostitutes “deserve” to be raped; and “all prostitutes are the same.” The authors argue that violence against prostitutes is a reflection of the overall phenomenon of violence against women.

Minichiello, V., Rodrigo, M., Browne, J., Jamieson, M., et. al. (1999). A profile of the clients of male sex workers in three Australian cities. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 23 (5), 511-518.

This paper reports findings from a study of customers of male prostitutes, as reported by male sex workers. “The paper attempts to provide a more comprehensive descriptive account of clients by asking sex workers to describe each client separately. The paper describes male sex workers’ perceptions of the socio-demographic characteristics of clients and compares the clients by source of recruitment.” Sex workers who advertised in newspapers, street sex workers, and workers operating through escort agencies in Sidney, Melbourne and Brisbane were recruited for the study. Male sex workers were asked to complete a brief questionnaire (referred to as a diary) following a sexual encounter with a client. One hundred and eighty-six sex workers participated in the study, providing information on 2,088 encounters and profiles for 1,776 clients. The largest proportion of clients were in their 40s (31.7%), followed by those in their 30s (28.7%) and 16% who were in their 20s. Most clients were perceived as being “middle class.” “Rich” clients tended to use services provided by an escort agency, while “poor” clients used the services of street workers. Most clients were identified as being gay (45%) or bisexual (31.3%). Drug and alcohol use by clients before the sexual encounter was uncommon. Sex workers reported having some personal information about their clients (61.2% of the cases). Greater trust between the client and the sex worker may result in increased risk-taking in sexual practices (7% of the clients requested unprotected intercourse). Customer violence was reported infrequently (occurring more frequently with street clients than with other types of clients). The authors suggest the results will help formulate policy and education strategies. However, “what is urgently required is a broader understanding of the interaction between the client and the male sex worker.”

Mok, B., & Jitong, L. (1999). In the service of market socialism: The quest for a welfare model in China. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 26, (3), 137-149.

The shift from a social welfare system to a socialist market economy in China during the late 1970s was accompanied by the emergence of new social problems and needs. New social issues included unemployment, deteriorating family relations, poverty among vulnerable populations and prostitution. “This paper discusses a welfare model proposed by the Chinese Government to contain the destabilizing effects of the social problems and to serve the newly adopted market socialism.” The authors note that prostitution had once been unimaginable in Socialist China, but is now growing into a persistent problem. Research conducted in 1994 revealed that, despite the varied reasons why women chose to enter prostitution, more than one half of the women surveyed cited money as their primary motive for entering the sex trade. To combat new social ills – such as prostitution – the Chinese government has started to explore the necessary steps for “socializing social welfare.” “The mission of social welfare, as repeatedly reiterated by Chinese leaders, is to help construct and consolidate socialism with Chinese characteristics through making full use of the market.”

Morse, E.V., Simon, P.M., & Balson, P.M. (1992). Sexual behavior patterns of customers of male street prostitutes. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 21 (4), 347-357.

This study uses semi-structured interviews with 211 prostitutes and 15 male customers to examine the sexual behaviour of male customers of male street prostitutes. Interviews focused on background and lifestyle information, sexual and substance use behaviours and HIV knowledge. The results indicate awareness and knowledge of HIV infection, however customers were found to participate in “high-risk sexual and drug use behaviours.” Male prostitutes had a high rate of HIV infection (175 per 1,000). The authors generalize that because customers were self-identified as bisexual or heterosexual, it stands to reason that male customers of male prostitutes infect other partners (including heterosexual partners) with the AIDS virus.